Comprendre comment les espèces s'adaptent à leur environnement est un des buts majeurs de la biologie évolutive. Il s'agit d'identifier les gènes responsables des caractères adaptatifs, mais aussi de comprendre les mécanismes généraux de l'adaptation, et des phénomènes empêchant une adaptation optimale. Les régions non-recombinantes sont particulières pour ces aspects. En effet, elles peuvent protéger de la recombinaison des combinaisons d'allèles favorables, et inversement, la suppression de recombinaison peut entraîner une dégénérescence, comme une accumulation de mutations délétères ou des pertes de gènes. Même les organismes à reproduction sexuée possèdent cependant souvent de larges régions non-recombinantes, associées à la détermination du sexe génétique ou du type sexuel. Dans cette thèse, j’ai ainsi étudié les traces d’adaptation et de dégénérescence dans des génomes de champignons pathogènes de plantes. Les champignons du complexe d'espèces Microbotryum violaceum, qui causent la maladie du charbon des anthères chez les Caryophyllacées et comptent des dizaines d'espèces spécifiques d’hôtes différents, sont d'excellents modèles pour l'étude des processus génomiques de l'adaptation. Ils possèdent de plus des chromosomes de types sexuels non-recombinants sur une partie de leur longueur. Pour étudier l'évolution des chromosomes de types sexuels, la dégénérescence et l'adaptation à l'hôte dans le complexe M. violaceum, nous avons adopté diverses approches de génomique. En utilisant la technologie PacBio, nous avons obtenu un assemblage complet des chromosomes de types sexuels pour l'espèce M. lychnidis-dioicae. Nous avons montré que la région non-recombinante s'étend sur 90 % des chromosomes de types sexuels, présente un niveau de réarrangements exceptionnel entre les deux types sexuels, et que des centaines de gènes sont présents à l'état hémizygote et ont donc probablement été perdus dans un type sexuel. De plus, la comparaison des génomes d'une douzaine d'espèces de M. violaceum a montré une accumulation de mutations non-synonymes et d'éléments transposables dans les chromosomes de types sexuels. Nous avons aussi étudié la dégénérescence dans le contexte de l'exposition aux radiations ionisantes, en analysant des populations de M. lychnidis-dioicae exposées à différents niveaux de radiation dans la région de Tchernobyl. Nous n'avons pas détecté d'augmentation du taux de mutations non-synonymes par rapport au groupe témoin, ce qui suggère que le champignon est radio-résistant ou que la sélection est plus forte dans la région de Tchernobyl. Enfin, pour étudier l'adaptation à l’hôte, nous avons reséquencé des dizaines des génomes de deux espèces sœurs de M. violaceum. L'analyse du polymorphisme a révélé des balayages sélectifs tout le long des génomes et à des localisations différentes entre les deux espèces. Nous avons identifié un certain nombre de gènes candidats pour l'adaptation à l’hôte dans ces régions de balayages sélectifs, sur la base de leur expression in planta et de leurs annotations. Les gènes sur-exprimés dans la plante montraient d’autre part un taux de substitutions non-synonymes entre les deux espèces sœurs plus élevé que les autres gènes, ce qui suggère qu’une bonne partie pourrait être impliquée dans l'adaptation à l’hôte. Ces travaux ouvrent la voie à une comparaison des génomes de différentes espèces du complexe M. violaceum, d’une part pour reconstituer l'histoire de la suppression de recombinaison dans les chromosomes de types sexuels, et d’autre part pour étudier les bases génétiques de l'adaptation à différents hôtes dans un complexe d’espèces phylogénétiquement proches. / Understanding how species adapt to their environment is a major goal in evolutionary biology. Scientists aim to identity the genes underlying key adaptive traits, but also to understand more broadly adaptive processes and phenomena that allow or prevent optimal adaptation. Non-recombining regions are particular for these aspects. They can indeed protect adaptive combinations of alleles from recombination, and conversely, suppressed recombination can lead to degeneration, such as accumulation of deleterious mutations or genes losses. Even sexually-reproducing organisms often possess large non-recombining regions associated with sex ou mating-type determination. In this thesis, I therefore studied signatures of adaptation and degeneration in genomes of plant pathogenic fungi. Fungi of the species complex Microbotryum violaceum, with dozens of host-specific sibling species causing anther-smut disease in the Caryophyllaceae family, are particularly good models for addressing the question of the genomic processes involved in host adaptation. Moreover, they possess size-dimorphic, partly non-recombining mating-type chromosomes. To study the evolution of mating-type chromosomes, degeneration and host-adaptation in the M. violaceum species complex, we used a genomic approach. Using PacBio sequencing, we obtained a complete assembly of the mating-type chromosomes of the species M. lychnidis-dioicae. We showed that the non-recombining regions span 90 % of the mating-type chromosomes, exhibit an exceptional level of rearrangements between the two mating-types, and that hundreds of genes are in a hemizygous state and were therefore probably lost in one of the two mating-type chromosomes. Moreover, comparing a dozen of species of the M. violaceum complex revealed an accumulation of non-synonymous substitutions and of transposable elements in mating-type chromosomes. We also studied degeneration in the context of ionizing radiations, by analysing populations of M. lychnidis-dioicae exposed to different radiation levels in the Chernobyl area. We did not detect any increase in the rate of non-synonymous mutations compared to the control group or with radiation, which suggests that the fungi is radio-resistant or that selection is higher in the Chernobyl area. Lastly, we resequenced dozens of genomes of two sibling species of M. violaceum in order to study host adaptation. Analysing polymorphism patterns, we found several selective sweeps along the genome, at different locations in the two species. We identified candidate genes for host-adaptation in the regions of selective sweeps, based on their expression pattern and on their putative functions. In addition, genes up-regulated in planta exhibited a higher rate of non-synonymous substitutions than other genes, suggesting that many of them are likely involved in host adaptation. This work paves the way to a larger comparison of genomes of different species of the M. violaceum species complex, in order to reconstruct the history of recombination suppression on the mating-type chromosomes on the one hand, and to study the genetic bases of adaptation to different hosts in a complex of phylogenetically close species on the other hand.

La transmission correcte du matériel génétique au cours de la mitose requiert l’attachement correct des chromosomes aux microtubules du fuseau mitotique. Les centromères au niveau des chromosomes servent de site d’assemblage aux kinétochores, interfaces multiprotéiques permettant la liaison des microtubules. Cependant, nous avons récemment mis en évidence chez la drosophile un mécanisme par lequel les fragments acentriques ségrégent normalement. Celui-­‐ci fonctionne grâce à un « tether », un filament d’ADN, qui relie les fragments acentriques à leurs partenaires centriques. L’intégrité du tether dépend de la fonction de BubR1, qui s’accumule au tether pendant de la mitose. BubR1 est une protéine clé dans le point de contrôle d’assemblage du fuseau mitotique, ou SAC (Spindle Assembly Checkpoint), qui contrôle l’attachement correct des kinétochores aux microtubules et inhibe l’entrée en anaphase. Nous avons voulu déterminer comment BubR1 est recrutée au tether, et nous avons montré que ce recrutement est dépendant du Bub3 Binding Domain de BubR1 et plus précisément de l’acide aminé E481 dans ce domaine. L’interaction Bub3-­‐BubR1 par l’intermédiaire de ce domaine est nécessaire à la localisation du complexe au tether. Nous avons également montré que BubR1 recrute à son tour Fzy par l’intermédiaire de son domaine KEN.Nous proposons un modèle dans lequel le recrutement successif de Bub3-­‐BubR1 et Fzy au niveau des chromosomes endommagés est nécessaire à leur bonne ségrégation en mitose. / Accurate transmission of genome during mitosis requires proper chromosomes attachment to microtubules of the mitotic spindle. Centromeres of chromosomes are assembly sites for kinetochores, multiproteic interfaces for microtubule binding. However, we recently discovered in Drosophila a mechanism that permits proper acentric chromosomes segregation. This mechanism works through a DNA « tether » that binds together acentric chromosomes to their centric counterparts. Tether integrity depends on BubR1 function, which accumulates on the tether during mitosis. BubR1 is a key protein in the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint (SAC), which monitors proper kinetochore-­‐microtubule attachment, and inhibits anaphase onset until all kinetochores are properly bound to microtubules. We wanted to determine how BubR1 is recruted to the tether, and we showed that this recruitment is dependant on the Bub3-­‐Binding Domain of BubR1, and more precisely the E481 amino acid. Bub3-­‐BubR1 interaction mediated by this domain is necessary for complex localisation on the tether. We also discovered that BubR1 then recruits Fzy via its KEN domain. We propose a model where successive recruiting of Bub3-­‐BubR1 and Fzy at the broken chromosome level is mandatory to their proper segregation in mitosis.

Chez les organismes sexués, des suppressions de recombinaison peuvent évoluer dans certaines régions génomiques pour conserver des combinaisons d’allèles bénéfiques, ce qui aboutit à la transmission de plusieurs gènes en un seul locus, alors appelé « supergène ». Les supergènes déterminent des phénotypes complexes, comme l’identité sexuelle chez les organismes qui ont des chromosomes sexuels. Sur certains chromosomes sexuels, la région sans recombinaison s’est étendue plusieurs fois successivement, produisant des « strates évolutives ». Il est communément admis que ces strates évolutives sont issues de liaisons successives de gènes sexuellement antagonistes (qui ont des allèles bénéfiques à un sexe mais délétère à l’autre) à la région qui détermine le sexe, mais peu de preuves empiriques soutiennent cette hypothèse. Les champignons constituent des modèles intéressants pour étudier les causes évolutives des suppressions de recombinaison parce qu’ils peuvent avoir des chromosomes de types sexuels non recombinants sans être associés à des fonctions mâles ou femelles. Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié l’évolution de la suppression de recombinaison sur les chromosomes de type sexuel chez les champignons castrateurs de plantes du genre Microbotryum. Chez les champignons Microbotryum, les croisements ne sont possibles qu’entre des gamètes qui ont des allèles distincts aux deux locus de types sexuels. Nous avons montré que les suppressions de recombinaison ont évolué plusieurs fois indépendamment pour lier les deux locus de types sexuels, depuis l’état ancestral avec les locus de types sexuels situés sur deux chromosomes différents. La suppression de recombinaison a soit lié les locus de types sexuels à leur centromère respectif, ou a lié les locus de types sexuels entre eux après que des réarrangements chromosomiques, différents dans les différentes espèces, les aient amenés sur le même chromosome. Les deux sortes de suppression de recombinaison sont bénéfiques sous le mode de reproduction par auto-fécondation intra-tétrade de Microbotryum, parce qu’ils augmentent le taux de compatibilité entre gamètes. Les suppressions de recombinaison ont donc évolué plusieurs fois indépendamment via des chemins évolutifs et des changements génomiques différents, ce qui renseigne sur la répétabilité de l’évolution. De plus, nous avons révélé l’existence de strates évolutives sur les chromosomes de type sexuels de plusieurs espèces de Microbotryum, ce qui remet en cause le rôle de l’antagonisme sexuel dans la formation de strates évolutives, les types sexuels n’étant pas associés à des fonctions mâles / femelles. Des études précédentes ont rapporté peu de différences phénotypiques associées aux types sexuels, ce qui rend peu probable qu’une sélection antagoniste existe entre types sexuels sur de nombreux gènes (l’existence de gènes avec des allèles bénéfiques à un type sexuel mais délétère à l’autre). Certains gènes situés dans les régions non-recombinantes des chromosomes de types sexuels étaient différentiellement exprimés entre types sexuels, mais nos analyses suggèrent qu’un tel différentiel d’expression peut être dû à la dégénérescence. En effet, des mutations délétères s’accumulent dans les régions non-recombinantes, ce qui peut modifier l’expression des gènes ou les séquences protéiques. Nous avons donc conclu que la sélection antagoniste ne peut pas expliquer la formation des strates évolutives chez les champignons Microbotryum. Par conséquent, des mécanismes alternatifs doivent être considérés pour expliquer l’extension progressive des régions non-recombinantes, et ces mécanismes pourraient aussi générer des strates évolutives sur les chromosomes sexuels. Ces travaux incitent de futures études à d’une part identifier d’autres strates évolutives qui ne sont pas associées à des fonctions mâles/femelles, et d’autre part à identifier leurs causes évolutives et leurs conséquences en termes de dégénérescence. / In sexual organisms, recombination suppression can evolve in specific genomic regions to protect beneficial allelic combinations, resulting in the transmission of multiple genes as a single locus, which is called a supergene. Supergenes determine complex phenotypes, such as gender in organisms with sex chromosomes. Some sex chromosomes display successive steps of recombination suppression known as “evolutionary strata”, which are commonly thought to result from the successive linkage of sexually antagonistic genes (i.e. alleles beneficial to one sex but detrimental to the other) to the sex-determining region. There has however been little empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis. Fungi constitute interesting models for studying the evolutionary causes of recombination suppression in sex-related chromosomes, as they can display non-recombining mating-type chromosomes not associated with male/female functions. Here, we studied the evolution of recombination suppression on mating-type chromosomes in the Microbotryum plant-castrating fungi using comparative genomic approaches. In Microbotryum fungi, mating occurs between gametes with distinct alleles at the two mating-type loci, as is typical of basidiomycete fungi. We showed that recombination suppression evolved multiple times independently to link the two mating-type loci from an ancestral state with mating-type loci on two distinct chromosomes. Recombination suppression either linked the mating-type genes to their respective centromere or linked mating-type loci after they were brought onto the same chromosome through genomic rearrangements that differed between species. Both types of linkage are beneficial under the intra-tetrad mating system of Microbotryum fungi as they increase the odds of gamete compatibility. Recombination suppression thus evolved multiple times through distinct evolutionary pathways and distinct genomic changes, which give insights about the repeatability and predictability of evolution. We also reported the existence of independent evolutionary strata on the mating-type chromosomes of several Microbotryum species, which questions the role of sexual antagonism in the stepwise extension of non-recombining regions because mating-types are not associated with male/female functions. Previous studies reported little phenotypic differences associated to mating-types, rending unlikely any antagonistic selection between mating types (i.e. “mating-type antagonism”, with genes having alleles beneficial to one mating-type but detrimental to the other). The genes located in non-recombining regions on the mating-type chromosomes can be differentially expressed between mating types, but our analyses indicated that such differential expression was more likely to result from genomic degeneration than from mating-type antagonism. Deleterious mutations are indeed known to accumulate in non-recombining regions resulting in modifications of gene expression or of protein sequence. We concluded that antagonistic selection cannot explain the formation of evolutionary strata in Microbotryum fungi. Alternative mechanisms must be therefore be considered to explain the stepwise expansion of non-recombining regions, and they could also be important on sex chromosomes. This work thus prompts for future studies to identify further evolutionary strata not associated with male/female functions as well as to elucidate their evolutionary causes and consequences in terms of genomic degeneration.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Chromosomal mechanisms of sex determination vary greatly in phylogenetically closely related species, indicative of rapid evolutionary rates. Sex chromosome karyotypes are generally conserved within families; however, many species have derived sex chromosome configurations. Insects display a plethora of sex chromosome systems due to rapid diversification caused by changes in evolutionary processes within and between species. A good example of such a system are insects in the blow fly family Calliphoridae. While cytogenetic studies observe that the karyotype in blow flies is highly conserved (five pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair sex chromosome), there is variation in sex determining mechanisms and sex chromosome structure within closely related species in blow flies. The evolutionary history of sex chromosomes in blow fly species have not been fully explored. Therefore, the objective of this research was to characterize the sex chromosome structures in four species of blow flies and investigate the selective forces which have played a role in shaping the diverse sex chromosome system observed in blow flies. The blow fly species used in this study are Phormia regina, Lucilia cuprina, Chrysomya rufifacies and Chrysomya albiceps. Phormia regina,and Lucilia cuprina have a heteromorphic sex chromosome system and are amphogenic (females produce both male and female offspring in equal ratio). In contrast, Chrysomya rufifacies and Chrysomya albiceps, have a homomorphic sex chromosome system, are monogenic (females produce unisexual progeny), have two types of females (arrhenogenic females – male producers and thelygenic females – female producers), and sex of the offspring is determined by the maternal genotype. To accomplish these tasks, a total of nine male and female individual draft genomes for each of the four species (including three individual draft genomes of Chrysomya rufifacies – male, and the two females) were sequenced and assembled providing genomic data to explore sex chromosome evolution in blow flies. Whole genome analysis was utilized to characterize and identify putative sex chromosomal sequences of the four blow fly species. Genomic evidence confirmed the presence of genetically differentiated sex chromosomes in P. regina and L. cuprina; and genetically undifferentiated sex chromosomes in C. rufifacies and C. albiceps. Furthermore, comparative analysis of the ancestral Dipteran sex chromosome (Muller element F in Drosophila) was determined to be X-linked in P. regina and L. cuprina contributing to sex chromosome differentiation but not sex-linked in C. rufifacies and C. albiceps. Evolutionary pressures are often quantified by the ratio of substitution rates at non-synonymous (dN) and synonymous (dS) sites. Substitution rate ratio analysis (dN/dS) of homologous genes indicated a weaker purifying selection may have contributed to the loss of sex-linked genes in Muller element F genes of the undifferentiated sex chromosome as compared to the differentiated sex chromosome system. Overall, the results presented herein greatly expands our knowledge in sex chromosome evolution within blow flies and will reinforce the study of sex chromosome evolution in other species with diverse sex chromosome systems.

Rapidly accumulating genomic data as a result of high-throughput sequencing has necessitated development of efficient computational methods to decode the biological information underlying these data. DNA composition varies across structurally or functionally different regions of a genome as well as those of distinct evolutionary origins. We adapted an integrative framework that combines a top-down, recursive segmentation algorithm with a bottom-up, agglomerative clustering algorithm to decipher compositionally distinct regions in genomes. The recursive segmentation procedure entails fragmenting a genome into compositionally distinct segments within a statistical hypothesis testing framework. This is followed by an agglomerative clustering procedure to group compositionally similar segments within the same framework. One of our main objectives was to decipher distinctive evolutionary patterns in sex chromosomes via unraveling the underlying compositional heterogeneity. Application of this approach to the human X-chromosome provided novel insights into the stratification of the X chromosome as a consequence of punctuated recombination suppressions between the X and Y from the distal long arm to the distal short arm. Novel "evolutionary strata" were identified particularly in the X conserved region (XCR) that is not amenable to the X-Y comparative analysis due to massive loss of the Y gametologs following recombination cessation. Our compositional based approach could circumvent the limitations of the current methods that depend on X-Y (or Z-W for ZW sex determination system) comparisons by deciphering the stratification even if only the sequence of sex chromosome in the homogametic sex (i.e. X or Z chromosome) is available. These studies were extended to the plant sex chromosomes which are known to have a number of evolutionary strata that formed at the initial stage of their evolution, presenting an opportunity to examine the onset of stratum formation on the sex chromosomes. Further applications included detection of horizontally acquired DNAs in extremophilic eukaryote, Galdieria sulphuraria, which encode variety of potentially adaptive functions, and in the taxonomic profiling of metagenomic sequences. Finally, we discussed how the Markovian segmentation and clustering method can be made more sensitive and robust for further applications in biological and biomedical sciences in future.

Tests were conducted to ascertain whether B chromosomes influence the susceptibility of maize (Zea mays L.) plants to gamma-radiation-induced DNA damage. Isogenic stocks of Black Mexican sweet corn with and without B chromosomes were premeiotically irradiated and DNA damage was assayed by measuring pollen viability. Higher pollen viabilities relative to non-irradiated control plants were consistently obtained in irradiated plants with B chromosomes when compared to irradiated plants without B's. Furthermore, among plants irradiated with 1250R those with one B chromosome produced the greatest proportion of viable pollen and plants with increasing numbers of B's produced progressively less viable pollen. An exophenotypic trait elicited by B chromosomes is also reported. Plants with 5 or more B chromosomes often display an aberrant phenotype characterized by longitudinal white leaf stripes and/or narrow leaves. This phenotype intensifies with increasing numbers of B chromosomes and is the first case of a qualitative exophenotypic trait attributable to B chromosomes reported in maize.

The X chromosome is present as a single copy in the heterogametic sex, and this hemizygosity is expected to drive unusual patterns of evolution on the X relative to the autosomes. For example, the hemizgosity of the X may lead to a lower chromosomal effective population size compared to the autosomes, suggesting that the X might be more strongly affected by genetic drift. However, the X may also experience stronger positive selection than the autosomes, because recessive beneficial mutations will be more visible to selection on the X where they will spend less time being masked by the dominant, less beneficial allele—a proposal known as the faster-X hypothesis. Thus, empirical studies demonstrating increased genetic divergence on the X chromosome could be indicative of either adaptive or non-adaptive evolution. We measured gene expression in Drosophila species and in D. melanogaster inbred strains for both embryos and adults. In the embryos we found that expression divergence is on average more than 20% higher for genes on the X chromosome relative to the autosomes; but in contrast, in the inbred strains, gene expression variation is significantly lower on the X chromosome. Furthermore, expression divergence of genes on Muller's D element is significantly greater along the branch leading to the obscura sub-group, in which this element segregates as a neo-X chromosome. In the adults, divergence is greatest on the X chromosome for males, but not for females, yet in both sexes inbred strains harbour the lowest level of gene expression variation on the X chromosome. We consider different explanations for our results and conclude that they are most consistent within the framework of the faster-X hypothesis.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Anatomy / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

The binding of low concentrations of actinomycin D (Act D) to fixed human metaphase chromosomes was studied using both autoradiographic and immunofluorescent techniques. At the concentration range of 0.001 - 0.1 μg/ml Act D is known to selectively inhibit rRNA synthesis. Although it was previously suggested that at these low concentrations Act D would selectively bind to the ribosomal cistrons, evidence also exists that the drug binds to non-ribosomal DNA, and inhibits rRNA transcription in an indirect fashion. Because of the conflicting data on Act D binding and a lack of focus on biologically relevant concentrations of drug, it was decided to systematically investigate the distribution of the drug binding in low concentrations to chromosomes from 72-hr human lymphocyte cultures. Autoradiographic detection of [³H]Act D bound to chromosomes showed no selective binding of the drug at concentrations that maximally inhibit rRNA synthesis. A new technique was employed using Formvar and potassium chromium sulfate as a pretreatment to autoradiography. This technique permitted simultaneous detection of silver grains and chromosome identification by G-banding. With autoradiographic exposure times of 1 and 7 days, there was a positive correlation of autoradiographic grains with chromosome length. To increase sensitivity in detection of Act D bound to chromosomes, a specific anti-Act D antibody was generated in rabbits. Antibody avidity was evaluated on the basis of a rapid charcoal assay. This charcoal assay was then used in development of a radioimmunoassay for Act D which is sensitive in quantitating the drug down to 0.005 μg/ml. The anti-Act D antibody was characterized to be IgG, and was shown to be specific for the pentapeptide lactone portion of the Act D molecule. Indirect immunofluorescence of Protein A-purified IgG containing anti-Act D was used to detect drug bound to fixed human chromosomes. The antibody was shown to be specific for drug bound to chromatin. When 0.1 μg/ml Act D was bound to chromosomes, the drug was observed bound throughout the genome, with no selective binding at the ribosomal cistrons. This confirms the autoradiographic data and supports the model of extranucleolar regulation of rRNA synthesis. Preliminary results suggest that Act D binds to GC-rich DNA, since an R-banding pattern was observed in 5% of the immunofluorescent metaphases examined.

Human Artificial Chromosomes (HAC) are fascinating extrachromosomal molecules that stay independently from the host genome and are capable of segregating as efficiently as endogenous chromosomes. It has been proven that HAC are potential tools for both basic chromosome behavioural research and agents for gene therapy purposes. My DPhil project is divided into two main themes. The first theme was to develop a novel artificial chromosome in mouse embryonic stem cells. The second theme was to understand the factors affecting chromosome stability which may also affect the efficiency of artificial chromosome formation. so that our protocol for better HAC preparation can be refined. There are six results chapters in my thesis. The first three chapters described how I developed human artificial chromosomes in mouse embryonic stem cells. Initially, vectors containing a long stretch of human alphoid DNA were delivered to mouse cells using the Herpes Simplex Virus-I (HSV-l) amplicon system but the efficiency was low. Next, mouse pericentromeric and centromeric DNAs were employed for mouse artificial chromosome (MAC) via HSV-l system. However, the efficiency remained the same. Finally, I used the Microcell-Mediated Chromosome Transfer (MMCT) system to transfer HAC from HTl 080 cells into mouse ES cells and successfully established HAC in ES which were highly stable. The results obtained in this first part of my thesis suggested that to increase HAC formation efficiency it would be necessary to improve the techniques of HSV-I delivery and MMCT. Moreover, it would also be important to better characterize factors affecting chromosome behaviour. The last three results chapters focus on factors affecting chromosomes stability and improving the HSV -1 delivery system and MMCT. I undertook an in vivo study of whole cell fusion experiments with the aid of live cell irnaging system, and found that histone H2B proteins underwent a dynamic assembly/disassembly processes. Live cell imaging of MMCT suggested that the microcell delivery is a very slow process and the results may lead to a refinement of the MMCT protocol. I found it is possible to generate a single HAC using two HSV-l amplicons containing two different constructs, potentially doubling the HSV-l HAC capacity from 150 kb to 300 kb. The last chapter illustrated how the expression of non- coding centromeric satellites impaired chromosome stability in both human cultured and human embryonic stem cells. The findings revealed that non-coding centromeric RNA plays an important role on chromosome stability that might be important for artificial chromosome development.