Stakeholders’ collaboration is receiving growing recognition in tourism planning and management. However, inadequate research has been undertaken into this topic within developing or underdeveloped countries. This study has evaluated the potential for stakeholders’ collaboration as a key factor in the prospects for Community Based Ecotourism (CBE) in coastal areas of Pakistan. Core concepts of strategic analysis and collaboration theory were applied to case studies and field research. Sustainable practices were identified from three selected CBE case studies (Ulugan Bay, Philippines; Operation Wallacea, Indonesia and Kaikoura District Council, New Zealand), all of which champion stakeholder collaboration in their operations. Field level research was carried out in Pakistan to identify gaps in sectoral management approaches to tourism. Attributes observed within all the three case studies were then critically compared with the situation in Pakistan. In order to explore CBE potential as a viable option for coastal tourism in Pakistan, an assessment of ecologically sensitive coastal areas for their potential in CBE together with an assessment of the stakeholder environment for collaboration in CBE was undertaken. Application of the first exercise to seven ecologically sensitive coastal areas (Jiwani, Miani Hor, Pasni-Astola Island, Harjana Village Bamboor, Kaka Pir Village, Mubarak Village and Keti Bandar) identified two major issues of concern. Namely how to avoid external threats for establishing CBE at each destination and how to access regional opportunities for developing CBE. With respect to second exercise, the stakeholder environment of Sindh Province was assessed for essential preconditions to enable stakeholders’ collaboration in CBE. Notwithstanding some major positive attributes of collaboration, the existing power based approach was considered to be a major obstacle. In order to conceptualise collaboration theory application to CBE in Pakistan, results of the empirical research into the stakeholders’ environment of Sindh were evaluated using a three-stage model of collaboration. The model was advanced through six propositions and the need for the model to recognise practical issues, biodiversity resources and scenic assessment values was identified. In order to successfully establish stakeholders’ collaboration in CBE in coastal areas of Pakistan the collaboration model recommended optimum conditions such as the inclusion of broad range of stakeholders; identification of a suitable convenor; application of a ‘search conference’; strategic repositioning of stakeholders and finally, establishing a collaborative organisation structure. This research concluded that selected rural coastal locations in Pakistan offer an alternative to unsustainable urban tourism on the beaches close to Karachi. Furthermore, the contextual environment of Sindh Province has a potential for stakeholders’ collaboration in CBE, but this is currently thwarted by stakeholders’ power based approach and the political instability of the country. Further work is needed to establish whether such a model could be applied elsewhere in the developing world.

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Bycatch refers to the portion of the catch that is captured incidentally to the target species and is one of many growing problems facing the world's marine fisheries in recent years. Prawn trawling is one of the world's most lucrative marine fisheries, contributing about 3% to the total annual production of the world's marine fisheries. It is also one the most wasteful because it is associated with large quantities of bycatch. This is because of the high diversity and abundance of other organisms in areas where prawn trawling occurs, and the non-selective nature of the otter trawl used to land prawns. The South African shallow water prawn trawl fishery is typical of penaeid fisheries, and operates on the Tugela Bank off northern KwaZulu-Natal. The bycatch of penaeid prawn trawlers operating on the Tugela Bank was analysed between March 2003-July 2004 as a follow up to an initial study between May 1989-June 1992. The aim of this study was to determine if there has been any change in bycatch species composition over the 13-years and to determine the impacts of trawling on the environment. Catch composition data were recorded from 168 trawls processed onboard trawlers and on-shore. A total of 122 species was identified with teleosts contributing more than 60% to relative abundance by number. Comparison between the 1989-1992 and 2003-2004 data sets showed that although the species compositions were similar, there was an increase in the relative abundance of pelagic species. It is not clear if the change is due to trawling impacts or due to fluctuations in recruitment of these taxa. The annual discarded bycatch was estimated at 88 tonnes in 2003 and the prawn catch was estimated at 1 1 tonnes, both substantially lower than in 1 989-1992. There was no difference in discard rate between trawls from shallow and medium depths. However, there were significant differences in discard rates between large and medium gears, and warm (December-April) and cool (May- November) seasons. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests revealed that there were significant differences between the 1990s and 2000s length frequency distributions of three sciaenid species (Otolithes ruber, Johnius dorsalis and J. fuscolineatus), which all showed an increase in fish size for the 2003- 2004 data. This assessment, however, is confounded by a gear effect as mesh size differs between the two sample periods. Based on the results of the study, management recommendations were made to improve the management of the Tugela Bank prawn trawl fishery by reducing bycatch. It was recommended that the observer programme continue for further investigation into the changes in species dynamics. Further research on BRDs (Bycatch Reducing Devices) and gear types that reduce bycatch is also recommended. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006

This thesis argues the case of community involvement in coastal management in New Zealand. It takes as its starting point objective six of the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (2010). Which it is suggested, frames the issue on community involvement in specific but rather limited ways. The thesis examines the potential for community-based management in two contrasting places, namely Kaikoura and Waiheke Island. Not only are these within different Regional Council jurisdictions, but they also have different community profiles. Kaikoura is a small rural town with a strong Maori presence in coastal management. Waiheke Island is a more mono-cultural, but rapidly growing island well within wider metropolitan Auckland. Using three research questions the thesis explores existing methods of community-based management in these two places and considers the extent to which these are effective and might also give insight into how objective six could be more appropriately constructed in order to mobilise voices from our beaches.

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A series of fluorinated and non-fluorinated poly(mono- and diitoaconate)s and a perfluorinated acrylate, poly(2-(N-ethylperfluorooctanesulfanamido)ethyl acrylate) have been synthesised, by both solution and bulk chain growth polymerisation methods, characterised and some of their properties (thermal behaviour, surface energy and marine antifouling peformance) have been investigated. Chemical structures were confirmed by Gourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H & 13C NMR) spectroscopies, as well as mass spectrometry. Poly(itaconate)s prepared by solution chain growth polymerisation resulted in low average relative molecular mass (Mw <15000), whereas those prepared by bulk chain-growth polymerisation were of high average molecular mass (Mw ca 60000). The thermal degradation behaviour of polu(monoitaconate)s, Mwca60000, was dominated by dehydration/de-esterification reaction at ca 170 deg.C which yielded a poly(anhydride) structure. Poly(diitaconate)s Mwca 60000, were thermally stable up to ca 285 deg.C above which a chain-unzipping process resulted in the formation of monomer as the major degradation product. Glass transition temperatures (Tg) were not observed for poly(monotaconate)s; for poly(hexanoyl diitaconate) Tg was ca -18 deg.C whereas poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanoyl diitaconate) exhibited two glass transition temperatures, attributed respectively to the relaxation of the alkyl side chain (ca 5 deg.C) and the overall polymer transition (ca 35 deg.C). Poly(hexadecanoyl diitaconate) was the only dditaconate to exhibit a melting endotherm. Surface energy contributions were calculated using the surface tension component (Good-Girafalco-Fowkes) theory. Recently-advanced and recently-receded contact angle measurements were performed at 25.0 + or - 0.2 deg.C for drops of water, diiodomethane and ethylene glycol on the itaconates that could be formed into films. Both recently-advanced and recently-retarded contact angles demonstrated the time-dependency of the wetting behaviour for drops of water, attributed to the slow, stepwise absorption of water by the polymer. Contact angles for drops of diiodomethane and ethylene glycol remained constant over time. Poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanoyl diitaconate), PI-2, possessed the most hydrophobic surface (initial recently-advanced water contact angle: ca 120 degrees), whereas the least hydrophobic material was poly(hexadecanoyl diitaconate), PH-2; initial recently-advanced contact angle: ca 96 deg. Poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanoyl diitaconate), PI-2, exhibited the lowest surface energy (advanced ca 7 mJm-2; receded: mean 9.7 mJm-2), whereas poly(hexadecanoyl diitaconate), PH-2 had the highest (advanced: ca 31-37 mJ m-2; receded 39.7 mJm-2). Poly(dodecanoyl monoitaconate), PA-5/6 exhibited surface energies of ca 22 mJ m-2 (advanced) and ca 31 mJ m-2 (receded). The low surface energy of poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanoyl diitaconate), PI-2 is attributed to both the high hydrophobicity of the surface and the presence of pendent fluorocarbon side chains, which prevent the interaction of diiodomethane molecules with the polymer backbone. The relatively high surface energy of poly(hecadecanoyl diitaconate), PI-2, is due to the lower contact angles measured for this material. Increases in the basic contribution over time and its larger value relative to corresponding acidic contributions are attributed to the uptake of water by the polymer; hydrogen bonding with oxygen atoms of the ester linking group may provide the driving force behind the observed phenomenon. Antifouling performances were evaluated in seawater exposure trials over two fouling seasons. The sequence of fouling events was similar in both seasons: initial settlement by barnacles and algae follwed by settlement of tunicates. In the 1995 exposure trial polymers prepared by solution chain-growth polymerisation as well as a selection of commercial materials were evaluated. All samples exhibited almost no resistance to marine fouling. Suggested contributory factors to their poor performance was their low average relative molecular mass (Mw <15000), a variability of sample coatings or the ineffectiveness of the samples against the inhibition/prevention of settlement/attachment by marine fouling organisms. In the 1996 trial, high average molecular mass poly(itaconate) films prepared by bulk chain-growth polymerisation reactions were exposed. Poly(dodecanoyl monoitaconate)(PA-6), poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanoyl monoitaconate) (PE-6) and poly(hexadecanoyl diitaconate) (PH-2) exhibited slight resistance to marine fouling, with resistances for these materials after seven months of exposure, of 13%, 18% and 34% respectively (control surfaces had fouling resistances of -5%). Areas free from coverage by fouling organisms were observed on all samples. The overall low resistance of poly(itaconate) can most likely be attributed to the absorption of water by these polymer films.

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There is concern for the environmental protection of coastal zones throughout the developed and developing world. The major strategy against environmental degradation is the widespread introduction of the Coastal Zone Management (CZM) and Integrated Coastal Managment (ICM) regulatory processes. A great deal of effort is spent introducing, developing and refining the various ICM processes and structures that should reduce the likelihood of man made environmental catastrophe. ICM itself takes a functional view of management. An alternative and broader set of paradigms as presented by Burrell and Morgan (1979) provide a richer illustration of the process. Applying Burrell and Morgan's multi paradigm approach to the analysis of four case studies of environmental degradation on the Tamil Nadu coast in southern India, the regulatory framework is shown not only to be inadequate, but in fact adding complexity and exacerbating the sociological pressures that led to degradation in ways that will not be overcome by recent refinements of the existing process. An attempt has been made to identify the key issues that are crucial to identifying coastal projects that are 'at risk' of environmental degradation in India and a generic conceptual model is proposed. In the light of the results of this research study, a critique of ICM recommendations that have been commissioned by the Indian government's Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has been attempted and these are shown to be inadequate in terms of preventing environmental degratation.