There is a current environment of change and progress within marine protection, reflected internationally by examples such as the Convention of Biological Diversity and nationally by the Marine and Coastal Access Act, 2009. Despite the UK's government agenda in this area, and the draw of people to coastal areas generally, the larger UK public lacks understanding and awareness regarding the marine environment. Combined with these circumstances, the social value of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (MCPAs) has been largely ignored relative to conservation and economics drivers, with the latter invariably taking precedence in environmental policy making. There is also a need for an appropriate framework or methodology with which to address the above in light of communicating, particularly the nontangible, social values of MCPAs to decision makers. This research investigates the social value of MCPAs in England and Wales through three data collection phases. These include a series of interviews to gain a perspective of social value from MCPA practitioners and the public. The emerging results are then examined in light of their operational value through in-depth case studies. The results led to the development of two assessment tools of social value which can accommodate both tangible and intangible values. The tools included a normative statement of examples demonstrating optimum social value, and a social value zoning tool that allows practitioners to 'map' the social value of their MCPA for evaluative purposes. The final research findings are represented by a conceptual model of social value within MCPAs. The assessment tools and model assist with the clarification of social value within MCPAs and can be used by decision makers to assess and communicate the social value of their site and influence management practice. This work demonstrates social value of MCPAs from several view pointsand develops tools which can be used by MCPA decision makers to evaluate, and further develop social value within these areas.

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This research challenged popular assumptions that Canadian coastal environments remain relatively un-impacted by human activities, and that current practices in coastal management are sufficient to ensure sustainability of coastal resources and communities. Using a systematic analysis of the literature, the performance of integrated coastal management, as reported for other nations, was examined, and shared impediments to progress were identified. Drawing from these insights, it was determined that past and current efforts to implement integrated management of the coasts in Canada have encountered similar constraints. An intensive review of state of the coast information in Canada was conducted, including an assessment of the indicators used to monitor change in coastal environments and coastal communities. The research concluded that there was insufficient information to support expectations that Canada’s coastal environments remain un-impacted. Information on actual conditions on the Atlantic coastal of Nova Scotia was supplemented with new research on the potential linkages between changing land cover and pressures on coastal receiving environments. Using geospatial technology and field investigations in local water quality, land cover ratios in primary watersheds were compared to nutrient concentrations in coastal waters. Working at a coarse landscape scale of data, in some embayments potential linkages were identified between reduced forest cover and increased nitrogen levels in rivers and bays. The research findings were also applied to the development of two practical tools for use in negotiated land use planning. To avoid adverse effects to coastal receiving waters, the GreenField Ratio proposes maximum and minimum thresholds for land cover types within primary watersheds. The Coastal Sensitivity Rating facilitates an improved understanding of the cumulative factors affecting the vulnerability of coastal ecosystems to impact. Responding to the challenges faced by current initiatives in coastal management, the research proposes an alternative approach for Canada that does not require integration of coastal authorities. As outlined, the CoastWORKS framework relies on collaborative efforts within existing institutional and community organizations to achieve needed change in policy and practice. CoastWORKS defines coastal landscapes, sets principles to guide action, establishes a list of priority goals, and can be accomplished through individual local actions and collaborative governance.

Coastal zone definitions are typically guided by the presence of absolute demarcations. As a result, the coastal zone becomes confined to, and identified as, an absolute space. This research challenges the ‘fixed’ nature of the coastal zone and suggests that there are a wide range of relational spaces that overlap and engage with each other to form the coastal space. These spaces and their sphere of influence extend beyond the ‘boundaries’ of what is legally defined as the coastal zone. Multiple coastal spaces have been identified based upon coastal stakeholder perceptions of what is relevant to the management of the coastal zone. Although there is a place for the absolute manner in which coastal zones are defined, definitions founded on absolute parameters tend not only to create a fixed abstract space, but they also naturalize a geographical construct to an unhelpful scale in terms of the functioning of coastal socio-economic and environmental systems. The absolute manner in which the coastal zone is defined and the reduced scale at which such a definition and the associated legislation is directed, severs and discounts, both temporarily and spatially, the influences of relational spaces that function at broader scales. The complication arises when the influences of such spaces are enmeshed within and beyond that legally defined coastal space. The legal definition and the associated legislation, in essence, attempts to address and solve issues occurring within the legal space, but disregards causative mechanisms that may lie outside of that legal space. This study suggests that a broader scaled and more holistic approach to defining the coastal zone, namely a system characterized by flows of interrelated spaces, will enable higher levels of sustainability to be achieved. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2009.

Corals are able to source autotrophically-produced carbon since they have symbiotic unicellular dinoflagellates embedded in their tissue. However, they are also known to be heterotrophic feeders and able to ingest a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, particulate organic matter and zooplankton. Recent research has shown that heterotrophic feeding has a marked effect on both maintenance and growth in corals by providing mainly a nutritional source of nitrogen and phosphorus. Nevertheless, no study has yet been undertaken on the interactions between feeding and sexual reproduction in corals. This study examines the effects of heterotrophic feeding on the sexual reproduction of Pocillopora verrucosa in aquaria. Rotifers were used as live food source at two concentrations (LFC = low feed colonies) = 5×102 organisms/L; (HFC = high feed colonies) = 15×102 organisms /L) and an unfed control (UC = unfed colonies) was added for comparison. Three replicates of five colonies were used for each food concentration and control. Rotifers were distributed among the nine aquaria four times per week for three hours. Histological sections of coral polyps were prepared to monitor the development of gametogenic stages and the fecundity of the colonies. The number and size of oocyte, and spermary stages were determined in each polyp. Both fed and starved colonies proved to be simultaneous hermaphrodites and broadcast spawners. The gametogenesis period was short and occurred from October to December 2007. No spawning event was observed in the aquaria. However, the disappearance of mature oocytes in samples collected in January 2008 suggested that spawning took place between December 2007 and January 2008. Heterotrophic feeding had a strong effect on reproduction in P.verrucosa. The results showed that both the proportion of polyps with gametes and the reproductive effort were lower in the fed than in starved colonies. It is likely that an energetic trade-off occurred between reproduction and other metabolic functions. However, oocytes were bigger in fed corals compared with the unfed controls. Several hypotheses are proposed to explain these metabolic/energy distribution patterns. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2009.

Coastal wetlands and rivermouth lagoons are dynamic systems, which respond rapidly to sea-level, tectonic, meteorological, anthropogenic and other synergistic drivers. This research used a multi-disciplinary approach to investigate two representative West Coast lagoon systems (Totara Lagoon and the Shearer Swamp-Waikoriri Lagoon Complex) in order to document their present-day geomorphology and determine the development and processes acting on these systems over historical time. This information was then used to predict their future under varying climate, development and management pressures. In addition to adding to the West Coast knowledge base, the findings of this research are applicable to similar systems elsewhere in New Zealand and internationally. This investigation used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate the dynamics, structure, development and active processes in the two study systems. Techniques to document current hydrology and topography included hydrological records of water level, temperature and conductivity, and Global Navigation Satellite Surveys (GNSS). Outlet dynamics over a decadal scale were investigated through temporal aerial photograph analysis, and sediment core analyses showed changes occurring over longer timescales. Significant differences in morphology and dynamics were observed between Totara Lagoon and Waikoriri Lagoon, with the former being much larger, more stable, and less dynamic in terms of dune morphology and outlet migratory patterns. Hydrologically, Totara Lagoon is currently in an estuarine phase, and experiences significant tidal inflows, which demonstrates the connectivity between definitions of coastal lagoons and estuaries. Waikoriri Lagoon is freshwater, and can be described as a hapua-type system, but exhibits very different river flow and barrier composition to East Coast examples. Sediment core analyses from Shearer Swamp and northern Totara Lagoon showed little change over a decadal to centennial scale, but evidence of a change in margin dynamics in response to farming and stabilisation of adjacent dune ridges was observed in Shearer Swamp. Results suggest landward migration of the southern end of Totara Lagoon occurred over this timeframe. The future of these systems depends on the interaction between climate and anthropogenic (including management) factors. A conceptual model of process and response suggests three possible resultant scenarios: lagoon loss, natural lagoon, or artificially modified lagoon. A significant finding of this research is the recognition that some systems exist on a continuum between a hapua and an estuary, switching hydrological states through time while maintaining consistent morphology. In addition, the importance of barrier permeability in hapua formation is highlighted, and the term ‘sandy hapua’ introduced to distinguish these low-flow systems with low barrier permeability from the typical mixed sand and gravel examples documented on the East Coast. These findings enhance scientific understanding of rivermouth lagoon systems, and demonstrate the wide spectrum of conditions under which they may form. This process-based understanding is important from a coastal management perspective as concerns of human induced climate change and accelerated sea level rise grow.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) depends on the recognition that benefits associated with healthy functioning (function benefits) of ecosystems are irreplaceable in ecological, geomorphological and social terms. A methodology for evaluating different inter-tidal wetlands on the basis of indicators representing their full range of functions is presented. Each inter-tidal wetland is attributed a function related score. These scores are region specific. Whilst they allow a ranking of inter-tidal wetland importance, they do not equate to economic value. A key advantage of this approach is that it quantifies the regional resource, and forms a basis upon which to consider the impact of future pressures and prioritise conservation actions. The methodology has been applied to the Solent and Poole Bay Marine Natural Area (MNA). The 13 inter-tidal wetlands within this region have been scored and ranked, highlighting the relative importance of the large inter-tidal wetlands of Poole, chichester and Langstone Harbours compared with the snmaller inter-tidal wetlands of the north shore of the Isle of Wight. The main challenges facing the conservation of this regional resource are evaluated and the cumulative impact/risk of key pressures is assessed. Lymington/Keyhaven and Southampton Water are considered to be the regional inter-tidal wetlands whose function benefits are most at risk over the next 20 years. A restoration target of 1200 ha of inter-tidal wetland is suggested for the MNA, with a recommendation that re-creation efforts should focus on Chichester Harbour. A detailed case study of the Lymington/Keyhaven inter-tidal wetland is presented. Technical rehabilitation solutions are suggested based on the synthesis of physical and ecological survey date. This research concludes that work to restore inter-tidal wetlands is urgently needed. Such work requires appropriate central Government funding together with a new mechanism, over and above existing compulstory purchase powers, to rationalize coastal landholdings. Investment should concentrate initially on the most easily rehabilitated and re-created sites, to offset the impact of natural forcing mechanisms associated with global environmental change. A role for environmental mediators in identified to raise the political and social acceptability of inter-tidal wetland restoration and a regional ecosystem-based approach is suggested as the best way forward

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a process defined in terms of achieving sustainable development. Despite sustainability being accepted by the majority of organizations currently operating on the coast, the integrated approach is seen as the more constructive and benificial alternative to achieve this state. Id 'success' for ICZM means sustainable development, then the question is raised as to how it attempts to achieve this, and, more speficically, how effectively it does so? Put another way, how can the management process be evaluated in terms of achieving its aims? Despite sevaral attempts to produce sustainability indicator sets, there is currently no established or validated way of assessing the effectiveness of ICZM initiatives and consequently there is also no national overview with thish to judge the strategic performance of coastal partnerships (CPs). This study aims to address this failing by developing and critically evaluating a standardised operating mechanism for assessing the ability of ICZM initiatives to achieve sustainable development. In order to develop this 'Coastal Sustainability Standard', a review was made of the current role and treatment of sustainability in coastal planning and management in the UK. Using the electronic database of the company 'Coastal Management for Sustainability' (CMS), a survey of UK coastal practitioners was carried out as to the key theoretical constructs inherent in the concept of sustainability. Textual analysis of the results, using the qualitative software package, Nud*ist 6, revealed six dominant constructs which would form the basis for the development of the standard. These six - planning; participation; communication; integration; responsibility and balance were defined as principles, and a set of criteria developed for each, with which to enable assessment. A scoring system and a set of guidelines were then designed to maximise the level of objectivity in carrying out the assessment, with the scoring system also reflecting the systems thinking inherent in the design. In order to validate the mechanism, three case study CPs were selected against which to carry out a detailed application of the Standard. These were the Exe Estuary Management Partnership (EEMP); Tamar Estuaries Consultative Forum (TECF) and Pembrokeshire Coastal Forum (PCF), all of which scored relatively poorly. That none of the three CPs achieved the pre-requisite standard raised a number of considerations relating to the efficacy of the Standard and its operation, as well as to the nature of ICZM in the UK and its aim of achieving sustainable development. Conclusions drawn from this evaluation identified that the current operation of ICZM in the UK exhibits a disjointed approach to achieving its long-term goals, as a result of its voluntary nature. The voluntary approach employed in the UK can be seen to be at the root of a number of problems facing the successful development of ICZM. In terms of resources, it has implications for the skills, knowledge and training of coastal managers, as well as the funding available to develop and implement effective plans. The voluntary approach also does not necessarily 'encourage' appropriate cultural changes within or between stakeholder organizations, and does not impart joint responsibility or collective liability upon stakeholders to achieve sustainable development.

Coastal Partnerships (CPs) have emerged since the early 1990s as a local and regional response to the national coastal management policy vacuum in the United Kingdom (UK). CPs are voluntary groupings of stakeholders aspiring to improved coastal resource use through integrated coastal management (ICM). CPs use the rationale of deliberative consensus building to develop and implement multi-sectoral coastal management strategies to deliver ICM. Despite the significance of CPs, there has been a lack of research into their effectiveness in securing meaningful representation of stakeholder views in decision-making. Poor stakeholder representation has the potential to undermine the credibility, legitimacy, accountability and democratic basis of CP management outputs. Through a telephone interview schedule with CP officers in the UK, the procedures and safeguards in place to accommodate stakeholder representation were evaluated. Results indicated that CPs have restrictive and variable membership criteria and unclear decision making procedures. These limitations exposed CPs to poor inclusivity and served to maintain existing power relations amongs stakeholders. It was also apparent that CPs had little information concerning the legitimacy of those representing stakeholder constituencies, potentially risking exposure to misrepresentattion. In order to examine these issues further, four case study CPs were selected and a personal interview schedule undertaken with stakeholder representatives. It was found that representatives were, in general the legitimate representative of their constituency, that most held a trustee relationship with their constituency, but generally had limited accountability - both individually and collectively. Representatives perceived the decision-making process of CPs to favour already powerful groups, which served to limit the credibility of the CP amongst the membership. The concept of secure representation was developed to describe circumstances in which stakeholder representation could be assured. It was determined that secure representation occurred when representatives were responsive to their constituency, when CPs had an inclusive membership and when decision-making was fair to all involved. Specific internal and external management measures to deliver secure representation were defined. This facilitated the development of a conceptual model that mapped secure representation against specific management measures. The model allowed particular routes to be identified for CPs to enhance their secure representation. It was concluded that both the procedures and safeguards within CPs and the management measures within stakeholder constituencies required reform. Central to this reform was the need for CPs to extend their sphere of influence to enhance the representation of stakeholder constituencies within coastal decision-making

No description available.