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The present investigation tested the prediction that effortless control processing, the deliberate activation of innate automatic encoding mechanisms, will enable nondepressed persons to accurately judge degree of control. Subjective judgment of control in nondepressed students was examined by a modification of the method developed by Jenkins and Ward (1965). The modification was based on Hasher and Zacks' (1979) version of the method. Several measures were used to assess students' representations of control. Students were asked to judge the degree of control their responses had over outcomes rather than the degree of contingency between responses and outcomes. To facilitate comparison of prior studies on the judgment of contingency with the present study, Jenkins and Ward's (1965) index of the actual degree of control was used. Their index used the magnitude of the difference between the conditional probability of an outcome given the occurrence of one response versus the conditional probability of the outcome given the occurrence of another response as representing degree of control or contingency. In this experiment, students instructed in effortful control processing and effortless control processing were presented with a series of problems in which there was no contingency between their responses and outcomes. The problems differed in the degree of favorable outcome frequency. Students' abilities to detect noncontingency between responses and outcomes under different conditions of outcome frequency was examined.

The proliferation of female entrepreneurs, especially in developing countries, instigated this study, to understand their judgement and decision-making processes in the highly complex and uncertain entrepreneurial landscape within which they need to thrive. The study focused on cognitive bias and its effects on risk perception and firm performance, particularly in female entrepreneurs. This study took a quantitative approach to analyse the effects of cognitive bias. A cross sectional explanatory research design, using a combination of purposive and snowballing non-probability sampling strategies, yielded a sample of 75 female entrepreneurs. The data collected on their risk perception, which is believed to be a determinant of success, was analysed using Pearson’s correlations, paired t-tests and multivariate regression statistical techniques. The key findings of this study are based on the evaluation of four research hypotheses were; a weak negative relationship exists between overconfidence and risk perception; a positive relationship exists between overoptimism and risk perception; and no relationship exists between self-efficacy and risk perception. With regard to firm performance, none of the cognitive biases or risk perceptions were found to have any statistically significant relationship. This study brought a different dimension to the effects of cognitive bias, as its findings mostly contradicted existing literature. / Mini Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2021. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / MBA / Unrestricted

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Government agencies have attempted to reduce energy consumption using executive orders, mandates, and agency policies. Despite these efforts, overall energy consumption of government facilities has not experienced significant energy reductions. Why haven't these efforts succeeded? The premise is that energy consumption decisions and their unintended outcomes contribute to this problem, and in this manuscript research focuses on cognitive bias, choice architecture, and decision making in relation to energy decisions answer this question. Potential impacts cognitive bias has on the decision maker is examined, and if it is possible to design better decision environments to account for cognitive bias and help decision makers maximize benefits (utility). This manuscript first examines the literature of cognitive bias, choice architecture, and government energy management, especially how these topics relate to meeting the country's energy goals. The next chapter examines cognitive bias that government facility managers encounter using qualitative analysis. In this study, the research indicates facility managers encounter loss aversion, risk aversion, choice overload, and the status quo bias during energy decisions. The last chapter examines applications of choice architecture, specifically attribute framing, to emphasize the utility maximizing choice of long term energy reductions over initial cost. This study found that decision makers did not see the utility of the energy efficient option without an intervention to draw their attention to the long term savings. Once the decision makers became aware of the potential savings, they chose the most efficient (and utility maximizing) option. / Master of Science

Negatively biased interpretation has been hypothesized as an important factor in the aetiology and maintenance of depression. Recently developed cognitive bias modification paradigms, intending to change these biases towards a more optimistic interpretation tendency (CBM-I), seem to offer new promising implications for cognitive therapy innovation. Surprisingly, the increasing interest in the modifiability of interpretation bias is contrasted by a severe lack of methodological and measurement development studies. A review of current research revealed 1) a severe lack of psychometrically evaluated measures for depressionrelated interpretation bias and its modification, 2) inconsistent findings for the existence of depression-related interpretation bias depending on the (direct or indirect) assessment paradigm, 3) a demand for profound knowledge about the underlying work mechanisms and best ingredients for CBM-I procedures, and 4) a lack of measures and CBM-I training materials in the German language. With these considerations in mind, the objectives of this dissertation were 1) to develop and evaluate an internally consistent and valid measure for the assessment of depression-related interpretation bias and its modification, 2) to validate an indirect priming task to assess interpretation bias and to further examine the interrelations of four different direct and indirect assessment paradigms, 3) to evaluate a new and more active CBM-I variant and test its effectiveness in comparison with guided CBM-I and a control group, and 4) to provide valid test and CBM-I training materials in German. The aim of study 1 was to develop and evaluate a pragmatic assessment instrument, consisting of a 30-item questionnaire (long version) and two 15-item parallel short versions (A and B). Items were generated as ambiguous sentences, reflecting three relevant content areas based on Beck’s cognitive triad (Beck et al., 1979). All three versions of the instrument were found to be structurally stable, internally consistent and valid. In line with Beck’s cognitive triad (Beck et al., 1979) in depression, confirmatory factor analyses determined a three factor solution (self, experiences, future). Significant correlations were found between all scales and depressive mood. The two short versions represent the same underlying constructs, share identical psychometric properties and possess high parallel-test reliability. The study was the first to evaluate and confirm the factorial validity as well as the parallel-test reliability, and therefore suitability to measure modification of interpretation bias measure in the context of depressed mood. The aim of study 2 was to evaluate an indirect affective priming task using homophones as ambiguous material and to compare this task to three different already established interpretation bias paradigms, namely an ambiguous scenarios test, a scrambled sentences test under cognitive load, as well as a homophone paradigm. No empirical support for mood-related interpretation bias was found for the newly developed affective priming task as well as the homophone task, which both did not differentiate between dysphoric and non-dysphoric individuals. The ambiguous scenarios test and the scrambled sentences test under cognitive load were shown to be internally consistent and valid instruments that were also highly intercorrelated. These findings emphasize the challenge to create valid ambiguous test stimuli for the measure of depression-related interpretation bias as well as the inequality of different assessment paradigms. Study 2 was the first study to examine the relatedness of four different direct and indirect assessment paradigms for the measure of depression-related interpretation bias in one sample. The aim of study 3 was to compare the efficacy of CBM-I requiring participants to imagine standardized positive resolutions to a novel, more active training version that required participants to generate the positive interpretations themselves. Participants were randomly allocated to (1) standardized CBM-I, (2) self-generation CBM-I or (3) a control group. Outcome measures included self-report mood measures and a depression-related interpretation bias measure. Both positive training variants significantly increased the tendency to interpret fresh ambiguous material in an optimistic manner. However, only the standardized imagery CBM-I paradigm positively influenced mood. Study 3 successfully evaluated a new CBM-I variant, gained insights about the role of self-generation and added further support to the potential therapeutic significance of imagery-based cognitive bias modification strategies. Altogether, this dissertation significantly contributed to the research field of depressionrelated interpretation bias by 1) filling a gap in measure development studies, 2) increasing the knowledge of the relatedness of different assessment paradigms, 3) increasing the knowledge about the working mechanisms and optimal ingredients of successful CBM-I, and 4) evaluating and providing assessment as well as CBM-I training materials for the German language context. / Ein negativer Interpretationsbias bezieht sich auf die Tendenz, mehrdeutige Reize (z.B. Situationen, Gesichtsausdrücke, Rückmeldung von anderen Personen) in einer pessimistischen Art und Weise zu interpretieren. Diese kognitive Verzerrung im Rahmen der Informationsverarbeitung wird als wichtiger Faktor für die Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung von depressiven Störungen diskutiert. Insbesondere die Modifikation dieser Tendenz zu einem positiveren Interpretationsstil (Cognitive bias modification targeting interpretation; CBM-I) erweckte in den vergangenen Jahren großes Forschungsinteresse, da diese innovativen, computergestützten Techniken wirkungsvolle Behandlungsansätze für die Therapie von Depressionen bedeuten könnten. Nach aktuellem Forschungsstand besteht jedoch 1.) ein Mangel an hinreichend evaluierten Instrumenten für die Erhebung von depressionsbedingten Interpretationsverzerrungen und insbesondere deren Veränderbarkeit, 2.) eine inkonsistente Befundlage für die Existenz von depressionsbedingten Interpretationsverzerrungen in Abhängigkeit von der (direkten oder indirekten) Erhebungsmethode, 3.) ein Bedarf an genaueren Erkenntnissen über die zugrunde liegenden Wirkmechanismen und effektivsten Komponenten von CBM-I und 4.) ein Fehlen von CBM-I Materialien und Erhebungsmethoden in deutscher Sprache. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurden die Ziele dieser Dissertation formuliert, die neben einer kurzen Einführung in das Themengebiet und einer abschließenden Diskussion aus drei Studien besteht. Das Ziel der ersten Studie war die Entwicklung und Validierung eines pragmatischen Erhebungsinstrumentes zur Messung von depressionsbedingten Interpretationsverzerrungen, bestehend aus einem Fragebogen (Langfassung, 30 Items) und zwei Kurz- bzw. Parallelversionen (A und B, jeweils 15 Items). In den Items werden emotional mehrdeutig interpretierbare Szenarien beschrieben, deren Inhalte Beck‘s kognitive Triade (Beck et al., 1979) widerspiegeln. Den Ergebnissen zufolge können alle drei Versionen des Instruments als strukturell stabil, internal konsistent und valide bewertet werden. In Übereinstimmung mit der Theorie der kognitiven Triade (Beck et al., 1979) wurde mittels konfirmatorischer Faktorenanalyse eine Dreifaktorenlösung (Selbst, Erfahrungen, Zukunft) festgestellt. Signifikante Korrelationen wurden zwischen allen Skalenwerten und depressiver Symptomatik gefunden. Die beiden Parallelversionen weisen ähnliche psychometrische Eigenschaften sowie eine hohe Paralleltest-Konsistenz auf. Das Ziel der zweiten Studie war die Validierung eines indirekten, affektiven Priming- Verfahrens, in dem homophone Wörter als emotional zweideutige Stimuli eingesetzt wurden. Dieser Test wurde zusätzlich mit drei bereits etablierten Erhebungsparadigmen (Ambiguous Scenarios Test; Scrambled Sentences Test, Homophone-Test) verglichen. Hinsichtlich der Ergebnisse konnte keine empirische Unterstützung für den affektiven Priming-Test sowie für den Homophone-Test gefunden werden; beide Tests zeigten keinen Zusammenhang mit depressiven Symptomen. Der Ambiguous Scenarios Test und der Scrambled Sentences Test erwiesen sich als internal konsistent und valide und wiesen außerdem eine hohe Interkorrelation auf. Die Ergebnisse geben Aufschluss über die Vergleichbarkeit der unterschiedlichen Erhebungsparadigmen. Das Ziel der dritten Studie war die Entwicklung und Evaluation einer neuen, aktiveren CBM-I Variante, in der die Teilnehmer mittels eines computergestützten Trainings aufgefordert wurden, positive Interpretationen auf emotional mehrdeutige Szenarien eigenständig zu generieren. Die Ergebnisse der neuen CBM-I-Variante wurden mit den Ergebnissen einer herkömmlichen CBM-I-Variante (Standard-CBM-I) sowie den Ergebnissen einer Kontrollgruppe verglichen. Es zeigte sich, dass sowohl die neue CBM-I-Variante als auch Standard-CBM-I die Interpretationstendenz signifikant in eine positive Richtung verbesserten. Darüber hinaus konnte durch Standard-CBM-I eine stimmungsaufhellende Wirkung erzielt werden.

Negatively biased interpretation has been hypothesized as an important factor in the aetiology and maintenance of depression. Recently developed cognitive bias modification paradigms, intending to change these biases towards a more optimistic interpretation tendency (CBM-I), seem to offer new promising implications for cognitive therapy innovation. Surprisingly, the increasing interest in the modifiability of interpretation bias is contrasted by a severe lack of methodological and measurement development studies. A review of current research revealed 1) a severe lack of psychometrically evaluated measures for depressionrelated interpretation bias and its modification, 2) inconsistent findings for the existence of depression-related interpretation bias depending on the (direct or indirect) assessment paradigm, 3) a demand for profound knowledge about the underlying work mechanisms and best ingredients for CBM-I procedures, and 4) a lack of measures and CBM-I training materials in the German language. With these considerations in mind, the objectives of this dissertation were 1) to develop and evaluate an internally consistent and valid measure for the assessment of depression-related interpretation bias and its modification, 2) to validate an indirect priming task to assess interpretation bias and to further examine the interrelations of four different direct and indirect assessment paradigms, 3) to evaluate a new and more active CBM-I variant and test its effectiveness in comparison with guided CBM-I and a control group, and 4) to provide valid test and CBM-I training materials in German. The aim of study 1 was to develop and evaluate a pragmatic assessment instrument, consisting of a 30-item questionnaire (long version) and two 15-item parallel short versions (A and B). Items were generated as ambiguous sentences, reflecting three relevant content areas based on Beck’s cognitive triad (Beck et al., 1979). All three versions of the instrument were found to be structurally stable, internally consistent and valid. In line with Beck’s cognitive triad (Beck et al., 1979) in depression, confirmatory factor analyses determined a three factor solution (self, experiences, future). Significant correlations were found between all scales and depressive mood. The two short versions represent the same underlying constructs, share identical psychometric properties and possess high parallel-test reliability. The study was the first to evaluate and confirm the factorial validity as well as the parallel-test reliability, and therefore suitability to measure modification of interpretation bias measure in the context of depressed mood. The aim of study 2 was to evaluate an indirect affective priming task using homophones as ambiguous material and to compare this task to three different already established interpretation bias paradigms, namely an ambiguous scenarios test, a scrambled sentences test under cognitive load, as well as a homophone paradigm. No empirical support for mood-related interpretation bias was found for the newly developed affective priming task as well as the homophone task, which both did not differentiate between dysphoric and non-dysphoric individuals. The ambiguous scenarios test and the scrambled sentences test under cognitive load were shown to be internally consistent and valid instruments that were also highly intercorrelated. These findings emphasize the challenge to create valid ambiguous test stimuli for the measure of depression-related interpretation bias as well as the inequality of different assessment paradigms. Study 2 was the first study to examine the relatedness of four different direct and indirect assessment paradigms for the measure of depression-related interpretation bias in one sample. The aim of study 3 was to compare the efficacy of CBM-I requiring participants to imagine standardized positive resolutions to a novel, more active training version that required participants to generate the positive interpretations themselves. Participants were randomly allocated to (1) standardized CBM-I, (2) self-generation CBM-I or (3) a control group. Outcome measures included self-report mood measures and a depression-related interpretation bias measure. Both positive training variants significantly increased the tendency to interpret fresh ambiguous material in an optimistic manner. However, only the standardized imagery CBM-I paradigm positively influenced mood. Study 3 successfully evaluated a new CBM-I variant, gained insights about the role of self-generation and added further support to the potential therapeutic significance of imagery-based cognitive bias modification strategies. Altogether, this dissertation significantly contributed to the research field of depressionrelated interpretation bias by 1) filling a gap in measure development studies, 2) increasing the knowledge of the relatedness of different assessment paradigms, 3) increasing the knowledge about the working mechanisms and optimal ingredients of successful CBM-I, and 4) evaluating and providing assessment as well as CBM-I training materials for the German language context. / Ein negativer Interpretationsbias bezieht sich auf die Tendenz, mehrdeutige Reize (z.B. Situationen, Gesichtsausdrücke, Rückmeldung von anderen Personen) in einer pessimistischen Art und Weise zu interpretieren. Diese kognitive Verzerrung im Rahmen der Informationsverarbeitung wird als wichtiger Faktor für die Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung von depressiven Störungen diskutiert. Insbesondere die Modifikation dieser Tendenz zu einem positiveren Interpretationsstil (Cognitive bias modification targeting interpretation; CBM-I) erweckte in den vergangenen Jahren großes Forschungsinteresse, da diese innovativen, computergestützten Techniken wirkungsvolle Behandlungsansätze für die Therapie von Depressionen bedeuten könnten. Nach aktuellem Forschungsstand besteht jedoch 1.) ein Mangel an hinreichend evaluierten Instrumenten für die Erhebung von depressionsbedingten Interpretationsverzerrungen und insbesondere deren Veränderbarkeit, 2.) eine inkonsistente Befundlage für die Existenz von depressionsbedingten Interpretationsverzerrungen in Abhängigkeit von der (direkten oder indirekten) Erhebungsmethode, 3.) ein Bedarf an genaueren Erkenntnissen über die zugrunde liegenden Wirkmechanismen und effektivsten Komponenten von CBM-I und 4.) ein Fehlen von CBM-I Materialien und Erhebungsmethoden in deutscher Sprache. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurden die Ziele dieser Dissertation formuliert, die neben einer kurzen Einführung in das Themengebiet und einer abschließenden Diskussion aus drei Studien besteht. Das Ziel der ersten Studie war die Entwicklung und Validierung eines pragmatischen Erhebungsinstrumentes zur Messung von depressionsbedingten Interpretationsverzerrungen, bestehend aus einem Fragebogen (Langfassung, 30 Items) und zwei Kurz- bzw. Parallelversionen (A und B, jeweils 15 Items). In den Items werden emotional mehrdeutig interpretierbare Szenarien beschrieben, deren Inhalte Beck‘s kognitive Triade (Beck et al., 1979) widerspiegeln. Den Ergebnissen zufolge können alle drei Versionen des Instruments als strukturell stabil, internal konsistent und valide bewertet werden. In Übereinstimmung mit der Theorie der kognitiven Triade (Beck et al., 1979) wurde mittels konfirmatorischer Faktorenanalyse eine Dreifaktorenlösung (Selbst, Erfahrungen, Zukunft) festgestellt. Signifikante Korrelationen wurden zwischen allen Skalenwerten und depressiver Symptomatik gefunden. Die beiden Parallelversionen weisen ähnliche psychometrische Eigenschaften sowie eine hohe Paralleltest-Konsistenz auf. Das Ziel der zweiten Studie war die Validierung eines indirekten, affektiven Priming- Verfahrens, in dem homophone Wörter als emotional zweideutige Stimuli eingesetzt wurden. Dieser Test wurde zusätzlich mit drei bereits etablierten Erhebungsparadigmen (Ambiguous Scenarios Test; Scrambled Sentences Test, Homophone-Test) verglichen. Hinsichtlich der Ergebnisse konnte keine empirische Unterstützung für den affektiven Priming-Test sowie für den Homophone-Test gefunden werden; beide Tests zeigten keinen Zusammenhang mit depressiven Symptomen. Der Ambiguous Scenarios Test und der Scrambled Sentences Test erwiesen sich als internal konsistent und valide und wiesen außerdem eine hohe Interkorrelation auf. Die Ergebnisse geben Aufschluss über die Vergleichbarkeit der unterschiedlichen Erhebungsparadigmen. Das Ziel der dritten Studie war die Entwicklung und Evaluation einer neuen, aktiveren CBM-I Variante, in der die Teilnehmer mittels eines computergestützten Trainings aufgefordert wurden, positive Interpretationen auf emotional mehrdeutige Szenarien eigenständig zu generieren. Die Ergebnisse der neuen CBM-I-Variante wurden mit den Ergebnissen einer herkömmlichen CBM-I-Variante (Standard-CBM-I) sowie den Ergebnissen einer Kontrollgruppe verglichen. Es zeigte sich, dass sowohl die neue CBM-I-Variante als auch Standard-CBM-I die Interpretationstendenz signifikant in eine positive Richtung verbesserten. Darüber hinaus konnte durch Standard-CBM-I eine stimmungsaufhellende Wirkung erzielt werden.

Welfare for captive animals in laboratory, farm, companion and zoo settings is difficult to assess and subject to interpretation. The perceived needs of animals change over time and according to budget, fashion and policy. The assessment of the value of environmental enrichment for captive animals is hampered by the lack of consistent, quantitative, objective and methodical research. Enrichment devices and other welfare improvement strategies lack long-term assessment or implementation. The concept of cognitive enrichment, or enabling captive animals to use their cognitive abilities to solve problems and meet challenges in their environment, is in the initial stages of development. Preliminary findings indicate that cognitive enrichment seems to be an effective method of improving captive animal welfare. In the research described in this thesis, several welfare measurement techniques including changes in activity budget, stereotypic behaviour and cognitive bias were compared and used to measure the effects of cognitive enrichment upon captive pigeons and dogs in order to obtain a useable cognitive enrichment paradigm that can be extrapolated to many types of captive animals. Key findings were that cognitive enrichment improved captive group-housed pigeon welfare and individually-kennelled dog welfare, indicated by significant changes in activity budget, increases in ‘optimism’, and reduction of stereotypic behaviour in subjects. Subjects used both low-tech and high-tech cognitive enrichments as intended and showed no sign of habituation. It is hoped that these findings will be used to improve captive animal welfare, and that the cognitive enrichment and cognitive bias paradigms developed will add to this field of research.

The overarching aim of this thesis was to contribute towards the translation of a laboratory paradigm into a clinical intervention: that is, to develop a positive Cognitive Bias Modification (CBM) technique using mental imagery into an internet-based computerized intervention for people with clinical depression. Preliminary studies using an imagery-based CBM to modify interpretation bias in depression have shown significant effects of the CBM in alleviating depressive symptoms. We know very little, however, about the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of imagery-based CBM in depression. A particular focus of the current thesis was to explore the effects of imagery-based CBM on variables that were thought to contribute to symptom improvement: mental imagery, emotion and behaviour. Experiment 1 explored these effects in a sample of mildly depressed individuals, using a CBM paradigm in which participants were required to generate mental imagery in response to positive, negative or mixed (control) combinations of picture and word cues. Participants assigned to the positive imagery condition showed mood improvements as well as enhanced behavioural performance (fishing game task) and reduced cognitive bias compared to participants in the two other conditions. Further, positive imagery was rated as increasingly vivid as they went along with the training. Study 2 explored the possibility that the behavioural task (i.e. a fishing game) used in mildly depressed individuals to detect CBM-induced differences in behaviour could be associated with behavioural differences between individuals with various and clinical levels of depressive symptoms. The hypothesis was tested that in a sample of individuals with minimal to severe symptoms of depression, behavioural performance on the fishing game would be inversely related to the severity of their depressive symptoms. As predicted, participants with higher depression scores performed less well on the fishing game task than those with lower scores, and this association remained when controlling for other variables such as state mood. Experiment 3a and 3b constituted the first two pilot studies exploring the feasibility of delivering imagery-based CBM over the internet to individuals with clinical depression. In Experiment 3a, the imagery-based CBM was developed into an internet-based intervention involving 6 sessions of CBM that participants completed in their own home over a week. The Oxford Imagery Generation (OxIGen) program was piloted in a small sample (N = 6) of clinically depressed individuals, and qualitative data were collected to assess experience of the intervention. As a result, refinements were made to improve the intervention and enhance engagement. In Experiment 3b, the finalised version of the OxIGen program, which involved 12 sessions of online CBM completed over a month, was piloted in a small sample (N = 8) of individuals with clinical depression. Results showed high levels of acceptability and adherence. Three of the four participants allocated to the positive imagery version of OxIGen showed reliable levels of symptom improvement. The exploration of the effects of OxIGen on mental imagery, bias and behaviour provided a mixed picture. For example, the predicted change in vividness for positive future imagery and negative interpretative bias was only found in two of the four participants from the positive imagery group. Finally in Experiment 4, the effects of OxIGen on positive future imagery and behaviour were examined as part of a wider clinical trial involving a large sample (N = 150) of individuals with clinical depression. The larger scale of this study allowed a sufficiently powered test of the prediction that the intervention would lead to changes in specific features of imagery (i.e. vividness and likelihood of positive future imagery) and increases in behavioural activation. Further, the hypothesised link between positive future imagery and optimism was tested. The results examined whether the OxIGen intervention can induce changes at different levels of psychological functioning (i.e. emotional, cognitive and behavioural). It is discussed that the combined action of these changes may reinstate a positive feedback cycle that ultimately leads to symptom improvements. Existing resources are largely insufficient to combat the major health problem of depression. The development of a promising laboratory paradigm towards a clinical intervention is an important step towards the development of short and inexpensive forms of treatment that can be delivered to the hands of the many people who need help.