This thesis explores the concept of thermal comfort in residential architecture, emphasizing a climatic approach that balances the physical needs of the human body with subjective well-being. It investigates the integration of air and heat as building materials in Swedish residential architecture. The study critiques traditional energy-intensive heating and cooling methods, proposing a design ethos that aligns with principles of sustainability and the adaptive thermal comfort model. Through a thermodynamic lens, the thesis follows the paradigm shift in architectural practice, emphasizing performance over form and the unseen meteorological influences within the built environment

O desconforto térmico nas salas de aula e nos estúdios do prédio principal da Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo (FAU-USP) sempre foi um dos principais motivos de reclamação por parte dos usuários. Tal desconforto acontece tanto devido ao frio quanto devido ao calor, mas as altas temperaturas nos ambientes de aprendizado têm o impacto de desconcentrar os alunos em suas atividades. Problemas quanto aos altos níveis de iluminação natural e a falta de flexibilidade quanto ao ajuste dos níveis de iluminância - principalmente nas salas de aula, em que há necessidade de escurecimento do ambiente para apresentações com a utilização de retroprojetor - também contribuem para a insatisfação dos usuários. A definição do potencial da ventilação natural como estratégia fundamental de projeto, associada ao sombreamento e à massa térmica, é o objetivo desta pesquisa. A redução das temperaturas operativas em cenário climático atual e em cenário de mudança climática, decorrente da redução da carga térmica no edifício, constitui a principal referência de análise de desempenho. Análises adicionais relacionadas à iluminação natural também foram conduzidas, como forma de olhar para o desempenho da edificação de maneira integrada. Por meio de simulações computacionais e do levantamento de campo, foram elaboradas recomendações de projeto para a edificação, contemplando o emprego das estratégias supracitadas. Entretanto, devido a limitações quanto à intervenção no prédio colocadas pelo Conselho de Defesa do Patrimônio Histórico, Arqueológico, Artístico e Turístico do Estado de São Paulo (CONDEPHAAT), a premissa fundamental deveria ser a solução dos problemas de conforto de modo que não interferissem visualmente na arquitetura. A substituição do conjunto de domos da cobertura, dentro do contexto da reforma pela qual passava o prédio desde 2010 e intensificada no final de 2013, exigiria análises de desempenho térmico e visual fundamentais para o sucesso do programa da reforma. O custo total das intervenções, associado à situação de dificuldade financeira da Universidade de São Paulo, não permitiriam que soluções fossem testadas in locu sem as corretas avaliações iniciais, sob o risco de os problemas de conforto serem perpetuados por mais algumas décadas. O convite do então diretor da FAU-USP, o Prof. Dr. Marcelo de Andrade Roméro, para participar dos trabalhos de análise veio no final de 2013 e constituiu a base da atual dissertação. A finalização da pesquisa é a proposição de recomendações de desempenho térmico e visual para o prédio - parcialmente incorporadas na reforma recentemente concluída -, como a alteração do material dos domos e o aumento da ventilação permanente através da cobertura. Outras recomendações não incorporadas incluem sombreamento externo da cobertura e alteração do mobiliário dos estúdios, a fim de proporcionar flexibilidade no controle dos níveis de iluminação natural nesses ambientes. As recomendações não incorporadas, contudo, podem servir de consulta para novas eventuais intervenções no edifício. / The thermal discomfort in classrooms and studios in the main building of the University of São Paulo Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism (FAU-USP) has always been one of the main areas of complaint from users. Such discomfort happens both because of the cold and the heat, but the high temperatures in the learning environments have the impact of distracting students in their activities. Problems concerning the high levels of daylighting and the lack of flexibility in the adjustment of illuminance levels - especially in classrooms, where blackout is needed in the room due to projection presentations - also contribute to the dissatisfaction of users. The definition of the potential of natural ventilation as a key design strategy, combined with shading and thermal mass, is the objective of this research. Reducing operating temperatures in both current climate and climate change scenarios due to reduced thermal load in the building is the main reference for performance analysis. Further analysis related to daylighting were also carried out as a way to look at the building performance in an integrated manner. Thorough computer simulations and field survey design recommendations have been prepared for the building, adressing the use of strategies cited above. However, due to limitations on the level of intervention in the building imposed by the Conselho de Defesa do Patrimônio Histórico, Arqueológico, Artístico e Turístico do Estado de São Paulo (CONDEPHAAT) - Heritage Council in the State of São Paulo -, the fundamental premise should be a solution for the comfort issues that did not interfere visually in the architecture. A replacement of the set of skylights, within the context of the renovation through which the building was undergoing since 2010 and intensified in late 2013, would require thermal and visual performance analysis, essential to the success of the renovation program. The total cost of interventions, associated with the dificult financial situation of the University of São Paulo, would not allow solutions to be tested on site without correct initial assessments, under the risk of environmental comfort issues being pushed forward into a few more decades. The invitation from FAU-USP director at the time, Professor Dr. Marcelo de Andrade Roméro, to participate in the analytical work came at the end of 2013 and set the basis of this dissertation. The completion of the research is the proposition of both thermal and visual performance recommendations for the building - partially incorporated into the recently completed renovation -, such as changing the material of skylights and increased permanent ventilation through the roof. Other recommendations not incorporated in the actual renovation include external shading for the roof and upgrading of furniture for the studios - the last one intending to provide flexible control of daylighting levels in these rooms. The unincorporated recommendations, however, may serve as a guide for any new intervention in the building.

O desconforto térmico nas salas de aula e nos estúdios do prédio principal da Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo (FAU-USP) sempre foi um dos principais motivos de reclamação por parte dos usuários. Tal desconforto acontece tanto devido ao frio quanto devido ao calor, mas as altas temperaturas nos ambientes de aprendizado têm o impacto de desconcentrar os alunos em suas atividades. Problemas quanto aos altos níveis de iluminação natural e a falta de flexibilidade quanto ao ajuste dos níveis de iluminância - principalmente nas salas de aula, em que há necessidade de escurecimento do ambiente para apresentações com a utilização de retroprojetor - também contribuem para a insatisfação dos usuários. A definição do potencial da ventilação natural como estratégia fundamental de projeto, associada ao sombreamento e à massa térmica, é o objetivo desta pesquisa. A redução das temperaturas operativas em cenário climático atual e em cenário de mudança climática, decorrente da redução da carga térmica no edifício, constitui a principal referência de análise de desempenho. Análises adicionais relacionadas à iluminação natural também foram conduzidas, como forma de olhar para o desempenho da edificação de maneira integrada. Por meio de simulações computacionais e do levantamento de campo, foram elaboradas recomendações de projeto para a edificação, contemplando o emprego das estratégias supracitadas. Entretanto, devido a limitações quanto à intervenção no prédio colocadas pelo Conselho de Defesa do Patrimônio Histórico, Arqueológico, Artístico e Turístico do Estado de São Paulo (CONDEPHAAT), a premissa fundamental deveria ser a solução dos problemas de conforto de modo que não interferissem visualmente na arquitetura. A substituição do conjunto de domos da cobertura, dentro do contexto da reforma pela qual passava o prédio desde 2010 e intensificada no final de 2013, exigiria análises de desempenho térmico e visual fundamentais para o sucesso do programa da reforma. O custo total das intervenções, associado à situação de dificuldade financeira da Universidade de São Paulo, não permitiriam que soluções fossem testadas in locu sem as corretas avaliações iniciais, sob o risco de os problemas de conforto serem perpetuados por mais algumas décadas. O convite do então diretor da FAU-USP, o Prof. Dr. Marcelo de Andrade Roméro, para participar dos trabalhos de análise veio no final de 2013 e constituiu a base da atual dissertação. A finalização da pesquisa é a proposição de recomendações de desempenho térmico e visual para o prédio - parcialmente incorporadas na reforma recentemente concluída -, como a alteração do material dos domos e o aumento da ventilação permanente através da cobertura. Outras recomendações não incorporadas incluem sombreamento externo da cobertura e alteração do mobiliário dos estúdios, a fim de proporcionar flexibilidade no controle dos níveis de iluminação natural nesses ambientes. As recomendações não incorporadas, contudo, podem servir de consulta para novas eventuais intervenções no edifício. / The thermal discomfort in classrooms and studios in the main building of the University of São Paulo Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism (FAU-USP) has always been one of the main areas of complaint from users. Such discomfort happens both because of the cold and the heat, but the high temperatures in the learning environments have the impact of distracting students in their activities. Problems concerning the high levels of daylighting and the lack of flexibility in the adjustment of illuminance levels - especially in classrooms, where blackout is needed in the room due to projection presentations - also contribute to the dissatisfaction of users. The definition of the potential of natural ventilation as a key design strategy, combined with shading and thermal mass, is the objective of this research. Reducing operating temperatures in both current climate and climate change scenarios due to reduced thermal load in the building is the main reference for performance analysis. Further analysis related to daylighting were also carried out as a way to look at the building performance in an integrated manner. Thorough computer simulations and field survey design recommendations have been prepared for the building, adressing the use of strategies cited above. However, due to limitations on the level of intervention in the building imposed by the Conselho de Defesa do Patrimônio Histórico, Arqueológico, Artístico e Turístico do Estado de São Paulo (CONDEPHAAT) - Heritage Council in the State of São Paulo -, the fundamental premise should be a solution for the comfort issues that did not interfere visually in the architecture. A replacement of the set of skylights, within the context of the renovation through which the building was undergoing since 2010 and intensified in late 2013, would require thermal and visual performance analysis, essential to the success of the renovation program. The total cost of interventions, associated with the dificult financial situation of the University of São Paulo, would not allow solutions to be tested on site without correct initial assessments, under the risk of environmental comfort issues being pushed forward into a few more decades. The invitation from FAU-USP director at the time, Professor Dr. Marcelo de Andrade Roméro, to participate in the analytical work came at the end of 2013 and set the basis of this dissertation. The completion of the research is the proposition of both thermal and visual performance recommendations for the building - partially incorporated into the recently completed renovation -, such as changing the material of skylights and increased permanent ventilation through the roof. Other recommendations not incorporated in the actual renovation include external shading for the roof and upgrading of furniture for the studios - the last one intending to provide flexible control of daylighting levels in these rooms. The unincorporated recommendations, however, may serve as a guide for any new intervention in the building.

In recent years increased emphasis has been placed on improving seat comfort in automobiles. This is partly due to research showing that prolonged driving is associated with increased risk of musculoskeletal disorders, but largely because driver comfort is now viewed as an increasingly important aspect of the competitive marketing of vehicles. Driving is firmly cemented as a major part of most people s daily life across the world and people are now spending more time in their vehicles than ever before. As urban congestion continues to rise, commuting distances and durations will progressively increase, subjecting drivers to the risks of long duration driving more often. Consequently the automotive industry has invested in designing seats that perform better under increased usage durations and ergonomics has played a vital role in the design of new seats. However, the ability to design a successful seat relies heavily on the capacity to accurately evaluate the comfort of a vehicle seat and one major issue that has been highlighted with the current state of automotive ergonomics research is the standardisation of comfort evaluation techniques. This research aimed to tackle these issues by investigating the effects of long duration driving on discomfort and the range factors associated with driver discomfort. Furthermore, the ultimate goal of this research was develop and evaluate a novel objective measure of driver discomfort that focused on driver seat fidgets and movements (SFMs) with the aim of standardising discomfort evaluation within the automotive industry. Three laboratory studies and one field observation were conducted to address these aims whereby subjective and objective evaluations of discomfort were conducted during long term driving (ranging from 60 - 140 minutes). The results determined that a measure of driver SFMs can be effectively implemented into long duration driving trials to evaluate the effects of long term driving and vibration exposure on driver discomfort and subsequently used to make accurate predictions of overall discomfort. Large positive correlations have been determined between measures of SFMs and subjective ratings of overall discomfort (r2 > 0.9, P < 0.05) and the SFM method has been successfully repeated under a range of driving conditions. Driver seat fidget and movement (SFM) frequency is shown to significantly increase congruently with subjective ratings over the duration of a long term drive as drivers seek to cope with increased discomfort. It is proposed that drivers will record movements in the vehicle seat when discomfort reaches a threshold that is consciously or unconsciously perceived and as the duration of driving accrues, drivers will reach this threshold with increased frequency. A measure of both SFM frequency and total accumulative SFMs have been shown to accurately predict discomfort ratings and provides the basis for discomfort evaluations to be made via remote monitoring, removing the need for subjective assessment. During a long term drive, there becomes a point upon which improvements in seat design become ineffective as extended duration driving will result in discomfort regardless of how well the seat has been designed. It was shown that drivers will move in the vehicle seat to cope with increased discomfort and in addition, another method of combatting the negative effects of long term driving was investigated. Subjective and objective evaluation determined that breaks from driving will reduce discomfort both immediately and upon completion of a long term drive. Furthermore, these benefits were increased when drivers left the vehicle seat as discomfort was reset when drivers took a 10 minute walk. Walking during a break from driving can be considered the ultimate SFM. Drivers are recommended to plan breaks from driving when conducting a long duration journey in order to minimise discomfort and when taking a break, drivers should take a walk rather than remain seated in the vehicle.

This dissertation deals with the measurement of the internal environment through thermal manikin Newton, especially in terms of thermal comfort. Measurements were performed in a typical office environment and cabins of small transport aircraft. The course of events and the time constants for the measurement in the office was given by real flow in the office when the sequences of events were unfolded from the usual transactions carried out during the day. In contrast, the second measurement, which took place in the model of small transport aircraft, the course of events and time constants, was performed exactly according to predetermined plan. The other parts of the thesis describe how to calibrate the manikin and then generate a diagram comfort zones. Following are compared individual test cases and events using the diagram comfort zones. Finally, individual test cases and events are compared using the diagram comfort zones and medics according to ISO 14505-2.

In recent years the focus and application of sustainability in buildings has risen. Both for environmental and human well-being reasons. The quality of the indoor environment affects the well-being, productivity and work performance, but it can also affect the occupants negatively, like increasing risks of different diseases and health issues. A good indoor environment alongside with sustainable materials, proper HVAC (Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) installations and building code regulations contribute to a sustainable solution with low environmental impact and reduced energy consumption. Since buildings alone are responsible for 38% of all human GHG (Greenhouse gas) emissions (Wikipedia, 2017), most countries recommend new more sustainable solutions to reduce that percentage. For example, in the EU, the 2020 climate and energy package targets to: cut 20% in greenhouse gas emissions, 20% of EU energy from renewables and 20% improvement in energy efficiency (European Comission, n.d.). In addition to the positive aspect of low environmental impact new constructions have, they also create a good living or working environment for the users. Studies have shown that a better indoor quality increases the productivity and work performance, but most of all the occupants feel comfortable and satisfied with their environment. A great number of papers have reviewed the acoustic, visual, thermal comfort and indoor air quality, which are main aspects of the indoor climate. Most papers focus on the users’ perception of these four aspects as well as other parameters that influence the indoor environment (architectural geometry, materials, etc.). Similarly, in this study case I focus on two different methods of obtaining the results, the objective method that contains the indoor environment measurements and the subjective method which includes a questionnaire created specifically for this research project. By obtaining these two sets of data, key focus points are developed, such as if the building’s certification meets the recommendations of Miljöbyggnad, what aspects influence the students’ perception the most, and whether there are any distinct connections between measured and calculated data. This study case was developed in a university building in Stockholm, where the four main aspects of the indoor environment were evaluated. The physical parameters such as temperature, air velocity, relative humidity, CO2 concentration and acoustics were measured in five different classrooms. In addition, a survey was developed for this study which included perception questions of the thermal, visual, acoustic comfort and indoor air quality. As found in other studies, gender and climate zone origin affected the overall indoor environmental perception. Even though the majority of both genders voted for “no change”, the remaining females answered that they preferred the conditions warmer. Also, the majority of answers from all climate zones were “no change”. However, the second highest opinion for students from warmer climate zones was “warmer”, which has also been found in other studies. Significant negative correlations were found between the acoustics and the satisfaction level of the acoustic comfort. Similarly, high correlations were observed between the visual comfort satisfaction level and the three aspects influencing it. Furthermore, the results showed that all physical measurements influenced the students’ thermal comfort and indoor air quality perception. All measurements obtained indicated a good indoor environment in all classrooms, and all values were between the Swedish Standards recommendations. Low correlation was found between the measured PVM and the AMV from the questionnaires even though all the values were among the limitations. Lastly, this study reviews methods that could be applied to similar future studies and, discusses what kind of errors to avoid in the future. There is still a lot of research that can be developed in order to gain a deeper understanding of the indoor environment and how humans perceive it. / Under senare år har fokus och tillämpning av hållbarhet i byggnader ökat, både för miljö och mänskligt välbefinnande. Kvaliteten på inomhusmiljön påverkar välbefinnandet, produktiviteten och arbetsprestandan. Tyvärr kan det också påverka de anställda negativt, som ökad risk för olika sjukdomar och hälsoproblem. En bra inomhusmiljö tillsammans med applikationer av hållbara material, ordentliga HVAC-installationer och byggregler bidrar till en hållbar lösning med låg miljöpåverkan och minskad energiförbrukning. Eftersom byggnader ensamma svarar för 38% av alla mänskliga växthusgasutsläpp (Wikipedia, 2017), rekommenderar de flesta länder nya mer hållbara lösningar för att minska den procentuella andelen. I EU strävar EUs klimat- och energipaket 2020 till att; minska 20% av växthusgasutsläppen, 20% av EUs energi från förnybara energikällor och 20% förbättrad energieffektivitet (European Commission, n.d.). Förutom den positiva aspekten av låg miljöpåverkan har nya konstruktioner skapat en bra levnads- och arbetsmiljö för användarna. Studier har visat att en bättre inomhuskvalitet ökar produktiviteten och arbetsprestandan men framförallt känner sig brukarna bekväma och nöjda med sin miljö. Ett stort antal rapporter har granskats enligt akustisk, visuell, termisk komfort och inomhusluftkvalitet, som är huvudaspekterna av inomhusklimatet. De flesta rapporter fokuserar på användarnas uppfattning om dessa fyra aspekter samt andra parametrar som påverkar inomhusmiljön (arkitektonisk geometri, material osv.). På samma sätt fokuserar jag på två olika metoder för att erhålla resultaten. Den objektiva metoden som innehåller innemiljömätningar och den subjektiva metoden som innehåller ett frågeformulär som skapats specifikt för detta forskningsprojekt. Genom att erhålla dessa två uppsättningar data utvecklas viktiga fokuspunkter, till exempel om byggnadens certifiering uppfyller Miljöbyggnads rekommendationer, vilka aspekter som i huvudsak påverkar elevernas uppfattning och om det finns några tydliga samband mellan uppmätta och beräknade data. Studiefallet utvecklades i en universitetsbyggnad i Stockholm, där de fyra huvudaspekterna av inomhusmiljön utvärderades. De fysiska parametrarna mättes såsom temperatur, lufthastighet, relativ fuktighet, CO2-koncentration och akustiken i fem olika klassrum. Dessutom har en undersökning utvecklats för detta studieprojekt som inkluderade uppfattningsfrågor inom termisk, visuell, akustisk komfort och inomhusluftkvalitet. Kön och klimatzonens ursprung var två andra parametrar som påverkade den övergripande inomhusmiljöuppfattningen, enligt andra studier. Även om majoriteten av båda könen röstade för "ingen förändring" svarade restrerande kvinnor att de föredrog klasrummet varmare. Dessutom svarade flertalet från alla klimatzoner "ingen förändring", även om den näst högsta åsikten för studenter från varmare klimatzoner var "varmare", vilket också har hittats i andra studier. Höga negativa korrelationer hittades mellan akustiken och tillfredsställningsnivån för den akustiska komforten. På samma sätt observerades höga korrelationer mellan den visuella komfortnöjdhetsnivån och de tre aspekter som påverkar den. Vidare visade resultaten att alla fysiska mätningar påverkade elevernas termiska komfort och upplevelse av inomhusluftkvalitet. Alla erhållna mätningar indikerade en bra inomhusmiljö i alla klassrum och att alla värden var inom svensk standards rekommendationer. Låg korrelation hittades mellan den uppmätta PVM (predicted mean vote) och AMV (actual mean vote) från frågeformulären även om alla värden var inom gränserna. Dessutom granskar studien metoder som kan tillämpas på liknande framtida studier liksom vilka slags fel som bör undvikas i framtiden. Det finns fortfarande mycket forskning som kan utvecklas för att förstå mer om inomhusmiljön och hur människor uppfattar den.

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The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of buildings can have a strong influence on occupants’ productivity and health. Post occupancy evaluation (POE) is the first step in assessing IEQ, and typically relies on subjective surveys of thermal quality, air quality, visual quality, and acoustic quality. However, the practice of conducting POE, from data collection during field studies to data coding, analyses and visualization, is very labor intensive. In addition, there is often a significant discrepancy between major IEQ standards and actual human perception. The Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics (CBPD) at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) has expanded POE to include both objective IEQ measurements and records of the TABS that may affect indoor environment and user satisfaction. The suite of three tools including user satisfaction survey, technical attributes of building system and workstation IEQ measurements in the National Environmental Assessment Toolkit has been deployed in over 1600 workstations in 65 buildings, generating a rich database for statistical evaluation of the possible correlations between the physical attributes of workstations, measured environmental conditions, and user satisfaction. The database also supports a number of critical hypotheses relative to the complexity and depth of field data needed, the critical factors that must be collected, and the possibility that humans are indeed good sensors for many variables. The major statements that have been drawn from the research are as follows: (1) Because human health and performance outcomes are a result of an integration of indices, IEQ evaluation must include thermal, air, visual, and acoustic measures. (2) While POE with IEQ measurement is an ideal approach to assessing the full suite of environmental characteristics that impact human satisfaction, health and performance, field measurements are labor and cost intensive. (3) Building occupants can provide critical insights and even real measures of IEQ, and contribute to updating IEQ standards to reflect integrated realities. As such, this research revealed an integrated approach to POE +M by leveraging occupants as sensors to quickly capture IEQ conditions in a work environment. This approach can identify critical factors in the physical environment that impacts building occupant comfort and satisfaction. This approach provides practical IEQ assessment methods and procedures centered on the occupants’ perspective. The ultimate outcome of this research will contribute (1) correlations between occupant perception and measured data, (2) a refined survey method to assess building IEQ capable of robust prediction of building performance, and (3) metrics and guidelines for IEQ standards that capture new IEQ thresholds that impact building occupants’ comfort. The hypotheses tested in this thesis are summarized as follows: Hypothesis 1: Humans are effective sensors for POE+M. Combining occupant responses with key IEQ attributes can provide insight that is comparable to complex field instrumentation. Hypothesis 2: User satisfaction can inform design decisions. Comparing user satisfaction to instrumented IEQ measurements can inform acceptable thermal, air, visual, and acoustic design for occupant satisfaction. Hypothesis 3: Environmental thresholds are not adequate. Comparing user satisfaction to instrumented IEQ measurements can inform acceptable thermal, air, visual, and acoustic quality l conditions for occupant comfort. Multivariate regression, multiple correlation coefficient, and Pearson correlation statistical analysis of the database of 1600 workstations revealed the relationship between measured and perceived IEQ indices, interdependencies between IEQ indices and other satisfaction variables of significance. This research can contribute correlations between occupant perception and measured conditions, and metrics and guidelines for IEQ standards that capture new IEQ thresholds that impact building occupants’ comfort. The key findings of the IEQ data analysis are as follows: The result of the thermal quality revealed that smaller thermal zone, greater window quality, a level of control, measured air temperature at 60 cm from the floor, and radiant temperature asymmetry between exterior and interior walls are critical factors of temperature satisfaction. For air quality, operable windows, window quality, partition height, dedicated exhausts for printer and copy area, return air density are critical factors for overall air quality satisfaction. User satisfaction of the visual quality showed that seated view in the workstation is the most critical factor for user’s overall visual quality satisfaction. In addition, better ceiling fixture, ceiling lens type, window type and managing illuminance level on the work surface are important. Lastly, to ensure the acoustic quality satisfaction in both background noise and frequency from distraction from other people, bigger workstation, more partition sides, higher partitions and management of distributed noise source are critical for user comfort and perceived productivity. Overall, this thesis identified opportunities to improve the process of IEQ assessment by engaging occupants in POE, and define critical indicators for building occupant satisfaction. The results will contribute to the ongoing database of engaging humans as IEQ sensors. In the future, the findings and framework described here may be applied in different aspects of the building delivery process, such as building life cycle evaluation, building design, and the construction stage, to improve occupants’ thermal, air, visual, and acoustic conditions in the building.

The role of internal audit has changed during the past few years. Today, internal auditors are central players in organizations’ corporate governance structure. However, previous studies show that there is a gap between internal auditors’ own perception of their role compared to their stakeholders’. The wide scope of internal auditors’ role risks placing internal auditors in a situation of conflict, where consulting services threaten their provision of assurance services. In order to provide clarification to the role, this thesis studies how internal auditors become comfortable in their role, as both assurance and consulting providers and what concerns internal auditors face in their work. In order to fulfill the aim following research question is asked: How do internal auditors become comfortable in their role within risk management? Ten internal auditors were interviewed in order to make a contribution in the field of internal audit. The findings suggest that both assurance and consulting services are needed in order for internal auditors to feel they add value to the organization and hence, become comfortable in their role. Internal auditors’ comfort is many times dependent on fulfilling their stakeholders’ needs, however, staying in the scope of their role was shown to be more important.

The mechanisms behind early domestication of animals are still unknown and an important question is how the changes leading to what is called the domesticated phenotype have developed. It has been suggested that the domestication process has been based on tameness of animals, and that tameness is genetically correlated to other traits. This study aimed to assess whether selection based on tameness induces changes in undisturbed behaviours related to general activity in the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) housed in semi-natural environments. Two strains of red junglefowl, selected for high and low fear of humans respectively, were studied and compared in terms of general activity. It was found that there was a selection effect on exploratory behaviour and activity, with low fear-birds being more explorative and more active, an interaction effect of selection and sex on feather preening, with high fear-males preening more, and no selection effect on comfort behaviour. Results from this study indicate that tameness is genetically correlated to exploratory behaviour, activity and feather preening in the red junglefowl. These results support the suggestion that the early domestication process was based on tameness and that genetic correlations between tameness and other traits led to the phenotypic variation that is today seen in domestic animals.