Since coming to power in 1997 the Labour government of the United Kingdom(U.K.) has renovated the diplomatic system so that the planning of commercial diplomacy has been centralized, the commercial activities of diplomats have been extended, and business interests have been formally integrated within the diplomatic systems. The changes to the institutions and practice of U.K. diplomacy now under way have created a diplomatic practice in which the balance between the commercial and political elements of commercial work has swung very much in favor of the former.

no / In a growing number of countries diplomatic systems are being overhauled so that the commercial activities of diplomatic services have been centralised, the commercial activities of diplomats have been extended, and business interests have been formally integrated within diplomatic systems. These changes result directly from the tendency of governments to reorganise, and in many cases merge, their trade and foreign ministries, as well as the strategy of building formal business–government links within diplomatic institutions. While none of these features is unfamiliar to previous diplomatic systems, what is exceptional is the relative neglect of the commercial aspects of diplomacy within diplomatic studies. This lack of attention to the commercial and business elements of diplomacy in traditional theories of diplomacy means that we find ourselves trying to analyse contemporary changes to diplomatic organisation and practice without a suitable conceptual and analytical framework. Highlighting the significance of a political economy approach to diplomacy, and also engaging with orthodox approaches to diplomacy, this article begins to develop some analytical and conceptual tools to better identify, explain and understand changes in diplomatic systems as well as the increased influence of private interests in diplomatic practice now under way.

In cities throughout Africa, domestic water is widely used for small businesses. The amount of water used depends on the size of the business and the individuals involved in these businesses are mostly women. However, many of these businesses do not have a direct connection to the city’s water network and the business owners often travel a far distance to purchase water at high prices. To explore this problem, the research titled “Analysis of Domestic Water Use for Livelihood Activities among the Poor in Alajo and Sabon Zongo Communities of Accra, Ghana” was undertaken. The main objectives of the study were two-fold: to measure the extent of domestic water use for livelihood purposes by both men and women in sub-urban communities of Accra and its contribution to their livelihoods, and enhance access of poor women to water to improve their water-dependent livelihoods and thus reduce poverty in Accra. The study also addressed issues relating to health and sanitation and explained that poor water quality in this community is as a result of damaged pipes and dirty storage tanks. The study was carried out using qualitative approach of investigation: interviewing, focus group discussions (FGDs), and direct observation. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data collected. The study found that income generated from water related businesses contribute either all or more than half of the household income of water-related business operators. Water prices in these communities are ten times the regulated prices charged by the water utility, which have great impact on the profit margins of these small businesses and are often the stronghold of women. The highest level of education attained by most of the water related business owners is Junior Secondary School (Grade 8), which gives a basis for the explanation of their low income and high poverty levels. The study posed some recommendations including the possibility of government’s provision of water to every household in the communities. Furthermore, the implication of this recommendation was discussed, as it eliminates the business of water sellers and obstructs the income generated to support their households. Other livelihood activities that can be carried out by these water-related business owners were stated to include internet café business, grocery store operation, and boutique store operation. Certain limitations of this study have also been identified as its scope was limited to some extent. Areas of further research have also been identified.

In cities throughout Africa, domestic water is widely used for small businesses. The amount of water used depends on the size of the business and the individuals involved in these businesses are mostly women. However, many of these businesses do not have a direct connection to the city’s water network and the business owners often travel a far distance to purchase water at high prices. To explore this problem, the research titled “Analysis of Domestic Water Use for Livelihood Activities among the Poor in Alajo and Sabon Zongo Communities of Accra, Ghana” was undertaken. The main objectives of the study were two-fold: to measure the extent of domestic water use for livelihood purposes by both men and women in sub-urban communities of Accra and its contribution to their livelihoods, and enhance access of poor women to water to improve their water-dependent livelihoods and thus reduce poverty in Accra. The study also addressed issues relating to health and sanitation and explained that poor water quality in this community is as a result of damaged pipes and dirty storage tanks. The study was carried out using qualitative approach of investigation: interviewing, focus group discussions (FGDs), and direct observation. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data collected. The study found that income generated from water related businesses contribute either all or more than half of the household income of water-related business operators. Water prices in these communities are ten times the regulated prices charged by the water utility, which have great impact on the profit margins of these small businesses and are often the stronghold of women. The highest level of education attained by most of the water related business owners is Junior Secondary School (Grade 8), which gives a basis for the explanation of their low income and high poverty levels. The study posed some recommendations including the possibility of government’s provision of water to every household in the communities. Furthermore, the implication of this recommendation was discussed, as it eliminates the business of water sellers and obstructs the income generated to support their households. Other livelihood activities that can be carried out by these water-related business owners were stated to include internet café business, grocery store operation, and boutique store operation. Certain limitations of this study have also been identified as its scope was limited to some extent. Areas of further research have also been identified.

Au-delà de replacer les transformations du paysage commercial alimentaire dans deux contextes urbains différents, cette thèse a pour objectif de montrer qu’à travers le renouvellement de l’appareil marchand de proximité dans les centres-villes, il est possible de mettre en perspective les évolutions plus générales de la ville contemporaine. Qu’elle soit considérée compacte (Saragosse), ou au contraire diffuse (Toulouse), celle-ci présente des points forts et des faiblesses qui révèlent la difficulté de trouver une fabrique idéale de la ville ou plus modestement de promouvoir une organisation commerciale plus qu’une autre. La proximité redessinée au spectre du temps laisse ainsi entrevoir des réajustements incessants qui initiés par les mutations des formes, des formats, et des règlementations restent surtout insufflés par les aspirations versatiles des chalands. Exogènes ou endogènes, mobiles ou «assignés à résidence», ils restent au final, les principaux artisans de la reconfiguration globale de la ville par leur façon d’entreprendre l’espace urbain en général, mais aussi les territoires du quotidien. L’observation des pratiques les plus banales, permettent alors de pointer les disparités socio-spatiales les plus stigmatisantes. / Commercial activities are key indicators of social and urban changes. Studying the evolution of grocery stores located in city centers, we concentrate our work on the geographic and social analysis of these commercial mutations in two different metropolitan areas. We compare and analyse these dynamics in Zaragoza (Spain), described as a compact city, and  in Toulouse (France), considered as a critical example of uncontrolled urban sprawl. The weaknesses, forces and sustainability (in a social and environmental way) of these two urban morphologies are confronted. The contemporary idea of impulsing a perfect urban model, in a sense where all part of cities would be "close" in space and time by controlling the location of commercial activities, emerge as another urban utopia. Even if national and local authorities produce planning documents to reduce commuting related to shopping, consumers habits explain the major part of the urban recombinations observed. Finally, using a common indicator such as grocery stores enhance the usual social and spatial segregation our urban societies have to deal with.

Esta pesquisa investiga o impacto de edificações do tipo “construído para alugar” na estética e no uso dos espaços urbanos consolidados e predominantemente residenciais, a partir da avaliação de diferentes grupos de indivíduos. O problema da pesquisa reside na inserção destas estruturas e de suas atividades comerciais em ambientes construídos sem que se saiba seu real impacto na qualidade visual e de uso do ambiente construído. Assim, o objetivo é analisar e comparar níveis de satisfação e preferências estéticas de cenas, nos períodos diurno e noturno, com edificações do tipo “construído para alugar” e cenas com as edificações substituídas, considerando que podem existir diferenças entre as avaliações de indivíduos com diferentes tipos e níveis de formação acadêmica e diferentes níveis de familiaridade. Também, é objetivo identificar os níveis de satisfação com a localização das diferentes atividades das edificações tipo “construído para alugar”, nos entornos predominantemente residenciais, e averiguar se esta tipologia é satisfatória para o desempenho das atividades que abriga, de acordo com diferentes grupos de indivíduos relacionados à estas estruturas. Para tanto, são selecionados nove exemplares localizados na cidade de Porto Alegre-RS. Os métodos de coleta de dados fazem parte dos utilizados na área de estudos Ambiente e Comportamento, sistematizados por meio de levantamentos de arquivo e levantamentos de campo, questionários e entrevistas. A análise de dados é realizada através de testes estatísticos não-paramétricos. Os resultados desta investigação demonstram que a estética das cenas urbanas é avaliada de acordo com o nível de estímulo visual e ordenamento de tais cenas, independentemente do nível de formação ou familiaridade dos indivíduos. Ainda, revelam que a tipologia “construído para alugar” não impacta de maneira positiva na estética dos seus entornos, principalmente para os moradores destes entornos, pois sua aparência tende a carecer de estímulo visual e de relação ordenada com seus entornos. Por outro lado, os resultados demonstram que as atividades comerciais destas edificações, em especial as de primeiras necessidades e de consumo imediato, são percebidas como muito adequadas para os entornos residências, devido à existência de demanda e a sua contribuição para o movimento qualitativo de pessoas nos espaços urbanos. Em complemento, os resultados revelam que as edificações são muito satisfatórias quanto aos espaços internos devido à flexibilidade e quantidade de espaço, e suas localizações têm influência no desempenho de suas atividades, que ocorrem de maneira satisfatória. Contudo, a tipologia tende a possuir acesso para usuários e áreas de estacionamento insatisfatórias, além de apresentar problemas relacionados ao conforto térmico. Por fim, espera-se que os dados obtidos possam contribuir para a qualificação dos espaços urbanos, objetivando atender melhor às necessidades dos indivíduos quanto à estética e ao uso do ambiente construído. / This research investigates the impact of "built for rent" buildings on aesthetics and on use of consolidated and predominantly residential urban spaces, based on the evaluation of different groups of individuals. The research problem deals with the insertion of these structures and their commercial activities in built environments without the knowledge of their real impact on the visual quality and use of the built environment. Therefore, the objective is to analyze and compare satisfaction levels and aesthetic preferences of scenes, during day and night periods, of “built for rent” buildings, and scenes with substituted buildings, considering that there may be differences between the evaluations from individuals with different types and levels of education, and different levels of familiarity. The research also intends to identify levels of satisfaction with location of the different activities of "built for rent" buildings within predominantly residential environments, and to investigate if this typology is satisfactory for the performance of its activities, according to different groups of individuals related to these structures. For this purpose, nine buildings located in the city of Porto Alegre-RS are selected. Data gathering procedures are part of those in the Environment and Behavior area of study, which includes archival records, field surveys, questionnaires and interviews. The data analysis was carried out through non-parametric statistical tests. The results of this research demonstrate that urban scenes are evaluated according to the level of visual stimulus and ordering of such scenes, regardless of the level of academic education or familiarity of the individuals. Furthermore, they reveal that the "built for rent" typology does not have a positive impact on the aesthetics of their environments, especially for the residents of these environments, since its appearance tends to lack visual stimulation and orderly relation with their surroundings. On the other hand, the results show that commercial activities of these buildings, especially those of first necessity and of immediate consumption, are perceived as very suitable for residential environments, due to the existence of demand and the contribution to the qualitative movement of people in the urban spaces. In addition, the results show that the interior area of the buildings are very adequate for their activities, due to the flexibility and quantity of space, and their locations have influence the performance of their activities, which occur in a satisfactory way. However, the typology tends to have an unsatisfactory access and parking areas for its users, as well as presents problems related to internal thermal comfort. In conclusion, it is expected that the results obtained can contribute to the qualification of urban spaces, aiming to better meet the needs of individuals regarding to aesthetics and the use of urban space.

Esta pesquisa investiga o impacto de edificações do tipo “construído para alugar” na estética e no uso dos espaços urbanos consolidados e predominantemente residenciais, a partir da avaliação de diferentes grupos de indivíduos. O problema da pesquisa reside na inserção destas estruturas e de suas atividades comerciais em ambientes construídos sem que se saiba seu real impacto na qualidade visual e de uso do ambiente construído. Assim, o objetivo é analisar e comparar níveis de satisfação e preferências estéticas de cenas, nos períodos diurno e noturno, com edificações do tipo “construído para alugar” e cenas com as edificações substituídas, considerando que podem existir diferenças entre as avaliações de indivíduos com diferentes tipos e níveis de formação acadêmica e diferentes níveis de familiaridade. Também, é objetivo identificar os níveis de satisfação com a localização das diferentes atividades das edificações tipo “construído para alugar”, nos entornos predominantemente residenciais, e averiguar se esta tipologia é satisfatória para o desempenho das atividades que abriga, de acordo com diferentes grupos de indivíduos relacionados à estas estruturas. Para tanto, são selecionados nove exemplares localizados na cidade de Porto Alegre-RS. Os métodos de coleta de dados fazem parte dos utilizados na área de estudos Ambiente e Comportamento, sistematizados por meio de levantamentos de arquivo e levantamentos de campo, questionários e entrevistas. A análise de dados é realizada através de testes estatísticos não-paramétricos. Os resultados desta investigação demonstram que a estética das cenas urbanas é avaliada de acordo com o nível de estímulo visual e ordenamento de tais cenas, independentemente do nível de formação ou familiaridade dos indivíduos. Ainda, revelam que a tipologia “construído para alugar” não impacta de maneira positiva na estética dos seus entornos, principalmente para os moradores destes entornos, pois sua aparência tende a carecer de estímulo visual e de relação ordenada com seus entornos. Por outro lado, os resultados demonstram que as atividades comerciais destas edificações, em especial as de primeiras necessidades e de consumo imediato, são percebidas como muito adequadas para os entornos residências, devido à existência de demanda e a sua contribuição para o movimento qualitativo de pessoas nos espaços urbanos. Em complemento, os resultados revelam que as edificações são muito satisfatórias quanto aos espaços internos devido à flexibilidade e quantidade de espaço, e suas localizações têm influência no desempenho de suas atividades, que ocorrem de maneira satisfatória. Contudo, a tipologia tende a possuir acesso para usuários e áreas de estacionamento insatisfatórias, além de apresentar problemas relacionados ao conforto térmico. Por fim, espera-se que os dados obtidos possam contribuir para a qualificação dos espaços urbanos, objetivando atender melhor às necessidades dos indivíduos quanto à estética e ao uso do ambiente construído. / This research investigates the impact of "built for rent" buildings on aesthetics and on use of consolidated and predominantly residential urban spaces, based on the evaluation of different groups of individuals. The research problem deals with the insertion of these structures and their commercial activities in built environments without the knowledge of their real impact on the visual quality and use of the built environment. Therefore, the objective is to analyze and compare satisfaction levels and aesthetic preferences of scenes, during day and night periods, of “built for rent” buildings, and scenes with substituted buildings, considering that there may be differences between the evaluations from individuals with different types and levels of education, and different levels of familiarity. The research also intends to identify levels of satisfaction with location of the different activities of "built for rent" buildings within predominantly residential environments, and to investigate if this typology is satisfactory for the performance of its activities, according to different groups of individuals related to these structures. For this purpose, nine buildings located in the city of Porto Alegre-RS are selected. Data gathering procedures are part of those in the Environment and Behavior area of study, which includes archival records, field surveys, questionnaires and interviews. The data analysis was carried out through non-parametric statistical tests. The results of this research demonstrate that urban scenes are evaluated according to the level of visual stimulus and ordering of such scenes, regardless of the level of academic education or familiarity of the individuals. Furthermore, they reveal that the "built for rent" typology does not have a positive impact on the aesthetics of their environments, especially for the residents of these environments, since its appearance tends to lack visual stimulation and orderly relation with their surroundings. On the other hand, the results show that commercial activities of these buildings, especially those of first necessity and of immediate consumption, are perceived as very suitable for residential environments, due to the existence of demand and the contribution to the qualitative movement of people in the urban spaces. In addition, the results show that the interior area of the buildings are very adequate for their activities, due to the flexibility and quantity of space, and their locations have influence the performance of their activities, which occur in a satisfactory way. However, the typology tends to have an unsatisfactory access and parking areas for its users, as well as presents problems related to internal thermal comfort. In conclusion, it is expected that the results obtained can contribute to the qualification of urban spaces, aiming to better meet the needs of individuals regarding to aesthetics and the use of urban space.

Esta pesquisa investiga o impacto de edificações do tipo “construído para alugar” na estética e no uso dos espaços urbanos consolidados e predominantemente residenciais, a partir da avaliação de diferentes grupos de indivíduos. O problema da pesquisa reside na inserção destas estruturas e de suas atividades comerciais em ambientes construídos sem que se saiba seu real impacto na qualidade visual e de uso do ambiente construído. Assim, o objetivo é analisar e comparar níveis de satisfação e preferências estéticas de cenas, nos períodos diurno e noturno, com edificações do tipo “construído para alugar” e cenas com as edificações substituídas, considerando que podem existir diferenças entre as avaliações de indivíduos com diferentes tipos e níveis de formação acadêmica e diferentes níveis de familiaridade. Também, é objetivo identificar os níveis de satisfação com a localização das diferentes atividades das edificações tipo “construído para alugar”, nos entornos predominantemente residenciais, e averiguar se esta tipologia é satisfatória para o desempenho das atividades que abriga, de acordo com diferentes grupos de indivíduos relacionados à estas estruturas. Para tanto, são selecionados nove exemplares localizados na cidade de Porto Alegre-RS. Os métodos de coleta de dados fazem parte dos utilizados na área de estudos Ambiente e Comportamento, sistematizados por meio de levantamentos de arquivo e levantamentos de campo, questionários e entrevistas. A análise de dados é realizada através de testes estatísticos não-paramétricos. Os resultados desta investigação demonstram que a estética das cenas urbanas é avaliada de acordo com o nível de estímulo visual e ordenamento de tais cenas, independentemente do nível de formação ou familiaridade dos indivíduos. Ainda, revelam que a tipologia “construído para alugar” não impacta de maneira positiva na estética dos seus entornos, principalmente para os moradores destes entornos, pois sua aparência tende a carecer de estímulo visual e de relação ordenada com seus entornos. Por outro lado, os resultados demonstram que as atividades comerciais destas edificações, em especial as de primeiras necessidades e de consumo imediato, são percebidas como muito adequadas para os entornos residências, devido à existência de demanda e a sua contribuição para o movimento qualitativo de pessoas nos espaços urbanos. Em complemento, os resultados revelam que as edificações são muito satisfatórias quanto aos espaços internos devido à flexibilidade e quantidade de espaço, e suas localizações têm influência no desempenho de suas atividades, que ocorrem de maneira satisfatória. Contudo, a tipologia tende a possuir acesso para usuários e áreas de estacionamento insatisfatórias, além de apresentar problemas relacionados ao conforto térmico. Por fim, espera-se que os dados obtidos possam contribuir para a qualificação dos espaços urbanos, objetivando atender melhor às necessidades dos indivíduos quanto à estética e ao uso do ambiente construído. / This research investigates the impact of "built for rent" buildings on aesthetics and on use of consolidated and predominantly residential urban spaces, based on the evaluation of different groups of individuals. The research problem deals with the insertion of these structures and their commercial activities in built environments without the knowledge of their real impact on the visual quality and use of the built environment. Therefore, the objective is to analyze and compare satisfaction levels and aesthetic preferences of scenes, during day and night periods, of “built for rent” buildings, and scenes with substituted buildings, considering that there may be differences between the evaluations from individuals with different types and levels of education, and different levels of familiarity. The research also intends to identify levels of satisfaction with location of the different activities of "built for rent" buildings within predominantly residential environments, and to investigate if this typology is satisfactory for the performance of its activities, according to different groups of individuals related to these structures. For this purpose, nine buildings located in the city of Porto Alegre-RS are selected. Data gathering procedures are part of those in the Environment and Behavior area of study, which includes archival records, field surveys, questionnaires and interviews. The data analysis was carried out through non-parametric statistical tests. The results of this research demonstrate that urban scenes are evaluated according to the level of visual stimulus and ordering of such scenes, regardless of the level of academic education or familiarity of the individuals. Furthermore, they reveal that the "built for rent" typology does not have a positive impact on the aesthetics of their environments, especially for the residents of these environments, since its appearance tends to lack visual stimulation and orderly relation with their surroundings. On the other hand, the results show that commercial activities of these buildings, especially those of first necessity and of immediate consumption, are perceived as very suitable for residential environments, due to the existence of demand and the contribution to the qualitative movement of people in the urban spaces. In addition, the results show that the interior area of the buildings are very adequate for their activities, due to the flexibility and quantity of space, and their locations have influence the performance of their activities, which occur in a satisfactory way. However, the typology tends to have an unsatisfactory access and parking areas for its users, as well as presents problems related to internal thermal comfort. In conclusion, it is expected that the results obtained can contribute to the qualification of urban spaces, aiming to better meet the needs of individuals regarding to aesthetics and the use of urban space.

This thesis examines policing within the context of security and development, with particular reference to ways in which the Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) operates in the wider political economy of Zimbabwean state in response to decades of financial crisis. Guided by the social constructionist philosophy and structural political economy analysis, the case study demonstrates that, through a range of commercial activities, the ZRP has been able to shift police preoccupation from ‘what is routinely important’ to ‘what works’ as part of resilience and adaptability in one of the world’s distorted economies. In cases where the police lack sufficient budget support from the government they recalibrate into self-organized systems and devise ways in which they raise the much needed revenue for policing. Using interpretive content analysis for secondary data and thematic analysis for in-depth interviews, the other finding relates to the ways in which the ZRP deploys neoliberal registers of ‘sustainable development’ and economic nationalist discourses to legitimise its involvement in commercial activities in farms, mines, tourism and social welfare businesses. Commercial activities involve distribution of wealth, power and interests. As such, what started off as productive entrepreneurship to ‘make ends meet’ slipped into unproductive and destructive entrepreneurship. The latter has made the police institution gets to a breakdown as different categories of officers split into different commercial units as they compete for access and control. To date, there is little literature that foregrounds the experiences and views of the police officers on the political economy of policing and it is to this literature this thesis primarily contributes. Inadvertently, as the ZRP responds to the economic crisis, it sometimes uses violence against citizens. The violence is sometimes quite targeted and deliberate as the police use metal spiked bars to clampdown motorists in demand of bribe money. The findings suggest that the police operating in a context of budget cuts are highly unlikely to be people-oriented.

Children are being used as marketers and consumers for the purpose of financial gain. Although much research exists about children's stance as consumers, very little is known about their role as marketers. Such lack of information indicates that children's authentic voices about their experiences are seldom articulated, heard, listened to, and acted on. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological heuristic study was to explore the lived experiences of former child participants in commercial activities in order to understand their perceptions as well as, the meaning, and impact of the experiences on their childhood development. The theoretical framework used included the theories of Bandura's social learning, Bronfenbrenner's ecological system, Vygotsky's social constructivism, Knowles' andragogy, and Meziro's transformative learning. The primary questions focused on participants' perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as the meaning, and impact such lived experiences had on their childhood development. The final sample consisted of 13 adults above age 18 who participated in commercial activities during their childhood and were selected through the snowballing technique. Data were collected, analyzed, and manually coded from multiple individual and focus group interviews. The thematic results and findings are necessary labor, cultural practice, belief system, power of tangible and intangible rewards, independent mobility factor, social dangers of risk factor, participants' affective response, and experiential learning. Implications for social change include the establishment of partnerships among schools, children, parents, and commercial industries to strengthen advocacy for, and effect improved conditions and treatment of child participants in commercial activities.