This dissertation traces the commodification of money in the U.S. after World War II. In 1945, all money was issued either directly by the government or, under conditions determined by the government, by commercial banks. Today, forms of money that are issued by private firms without government backing make up the majority of all money claims, and a significant part of the U.S. payment system is operated by a private organization. These forms of money were essentially in existence by 1980; hence this dissertation focuses on their emergence between the late 1940s and the late 1970s. The new forms of money emerged outside public purview. In part, this was the result of their wholesale character: they were used not by the many households and small businesses that each made modest payments but by the few large organizations that moved vast sums around. But it was also the result of a fundamental choice made by these large organizations. They created new forms of money not by trying to change public laws but by evading them, through private contract and private law. While public discourse and democratic decision-making played virtually no role in the process, the state as an issuer of financial instruments did. Central bank deposits and government securities formed the basis on top of which private actors built crucial parts of the new forms of money. Creating a new form of money is difficult because its creators need to achieve two potentially contradictory goals. To get private actors to join the market, the creators need to convince them that the products traded are equivalent to money. To keep public actors from shutting down the market, the creators have to convince them that the products traded are not money (otherwise, the creators would be involved in counterfeiting). The former goal, I will argue against non-sociological explanations, cannot be achieved only by discovering an opportunity for arbitrage, exploiting a legal loophole, or making use of technological change. As important as these cognitive innovations are, the creators of a new form of money also need to be able to mobilize preexisting social relationships, so that the necessary transaction volume to render a financial instrument a form of money is achieved. The latter goal—keeping the state from shutting down the new form of money—was particularly hard to achieve in the postwar U.S. with its policy monopoly over money exercised by the Federal Reserve, a knowledgeable and powerful institution. I will argue that private actors found it possible to create a new form of money when the Federal Reserve saw the innovation only secondarily as concerned with money and primarily as furthering one of its other goals, in particular the financing of the U.S. government and the functioning of the banking system. Drawing on new archival data, this dissertation traces the eventful process through which the creators of private money navigated the two conflicting imperatives. Chapters 2–4 investigate new forms of money as a store of value. Chapter 2 describes how securities firms and corporate treasurers created a pioneering money market—the one in repurchase agreements—and how the major commercial banks reacted by calling for a restoration of the old monetary system. Chapter 3 shows that, when this call went unheeded by the Federal Reserve, the commercial banks themselves began to create new money markets, with effects that percolated through the entire financial system and led participants to reassess their roles and the norms that guided their interactions. Chapter 4 explains the management of the first major crisis of the money market, in 1974, as a silent triumph of the commercial banks over the Federal Reserve—in a moment of weakness, the money market became entrenched. Chapter 5 turns to money as a means of payment. It shows that, in contrast to the decentralized emergence of the money market, major commercial banks in the late 1960s built a new payment system through coordinated action and, in the crisis of 1974, took tremendous risks to stabilize that new form of money.

Jakobs dagar is a cultural event that takes place in the city of Jakobstad in Finland. The aim of this paper is to see if the place identity that Jakobstad has matches the cultural event. The used method in this paper is focus groups with the locals from Jakobstad and an intervju with the organizer of the event, which is analyzed trough an thematic analysis. Jakobstads image is pitted against the image that Jakobs dagar depicts. The results are showing that the cutural image shown during the event fits the description of what the locals is regarding as Jakobstads cultural identity.

Capitalism's success, according to Karl Marx, is based on continued development of new markets and products. As globalization shrinks the world marketplace, corporations are forced to seek both new customers and products to sell. Commodification is the process of transforming objects, ideas and even people into merchandise. The recent growth of the World Wide Web has caught the attention of the corporate world, and they are attempting to convert a free-share-based medium into a profit-based outlet. To be successful, they must change Web users' perception about the nature of the Web itself. This study asks the question: Is there mythic evidence of commodification on the World Wide Web? It examines how the World Wide Web is presented to readers of three national publications-Wired, Newsweek, and Business Week-from 1993 to 2000. It uses Barthes' two-tiered model of myths to examine the descriptors used to modify and describe the World Wide Web. The descriptors were clustered into 11 general categories, including connectivity, social, being, scene, consumption, revolution, tool, value, biology, arena, and other. Wired articles did not demonstrate a trend in categorical change from 1993 to 2000; the category of choice shifted back and forth between Revolution, Connectivity, Scene, and Being. Newsweek articles demonstrated an obvious directional shift. Connectivity is the dominant myth from 1994 to 1998, when the revolution category dominates. Similarly, Business Week follows the prevailing myth of connectivity from 1994 to 1997. From 1998 on, the competition-related categories of revolution and arena lead all categories. The study finds evidence of commodification on the World Wide Web, based on the trend in categories in Newsweek and Business Week that move from a foundational myth that presents a perception of cooperation in 1994 to one of competition in 1998 and later. The study recommends further in-depth research of the target publications, a review of articles in less-developed countries, and content analysis and ethnography online.

The thesis called Academic Spectacle: Commodification of Knowledge in Pnin, The Breast, and White Noise deals with the commodifying influence of the consumer society on education, knowledge and the perception of information, as it is reflected in the following American academic novels: Pnin (1957) by Vladimir Nabokov, Philip Roth's The Breast (1972) and White Noise (1985) by Don DeLillo. The thesis combines the approach of literary analysis with the use of cultural- theoretical terms and theories relating to the state of postmodern society from the texts of Waltr Benjamin, Jean Baudrillard, Guy Debord, Linda Hutcheon or Theodore Adorno and Max Horkheimer. In addition, it elaborates on sociological concepts, such as "the risk society" of Ulrich Beck, the "public arenas model" of approaching social problems of Stephen Hilgratner and Charles Bosk or "the hyperconsumer society", the term Gilles Lipovetsky applies to the state of present societies. Therefore, the thesis belongs to the area of cultural studies, which typically combine the approaches of sociology and literary studies. For the sake of analyzing the influence of the consumer society on the academic environment (as it is reflected in the given novels), we established four basic aspects of commodification: reification, banalization,...

This study examines the marketing strategies employed by vendors at the Westwego shrimp lot in Westwego, Louisiana. Given the fluctuating market conditions and rising costs of seafood production, seafood vendors in the Gulf Coast region must look continuously for new ways to market their product as a cultural commodity. This thesis argues that shrimp becomes a cultural commodity at the Westwego shrimp lot, and that through marketing strategies, vendors at the Westwego shrimp lot both resist and accept certain aspects of globalization. The presence of imports, a presence that emerges in the context of globalization, poses a large threat to the industry‟s survival. Vendors both consciously and unconsciously market shrimp as food and symbol. An analysis of their efforts may contribute to understanding the process of cultural commodification.

A naturalização do caráter mercantil da saúde no Brasil possui estreita vinculação com sua história. Antes do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), a saúde não era um direito de todos, muito menos uma responsabilidade do Estado e estava restrita a uma parcela da população trabalhadora que pagava para garantir esse benefício. Desde o século passado já se priorizava a saúde privada em detrimento de uma oferta de serviços públicos que abrangesse todas as camadas sociais. Tal fato traduz o processo de reificação e mercantilização da saúde. Esse estudo teve como objetivo analisar os determinantes sócio-históricos mais gerais ligados à questão da saúde como mercadoria e seus reflexos sobre o SUS. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida com 27 participantes, nove secretários de saúde, nove usuários conselheiros municipais de saúde e nove usuários do SUS, distribuídos em nove municípios da Macrorregião Triângulo Sul do estado de Minas Gerais. Para coleta dos dados foram realizadas entrevistas individuais seguindo procedimentos de evocação, enunciação e averiguação. As gravações das entrevistas filmadas ou áudio-gravadas foram transcritas integralmente. A análise das entrevistas foi processada via identificação de conteúdos ex post facto para definição de categorias e unidades temáticas, relacionadas ao processo de reificação da saúde. Tais resultados foram analisados sob a perspectiva do materialismo histórico e dialético. Três categorias temáticas, uma para cada segmento dos entrevistados, agruparam alguns determinantes ligados ao objetivo do trabalho: A) Racionalidades do Sistema Único de Saúde (secretários de saúde), em que foram reunidos conteúdos referentes aos elementos de enfrentamento para a provisão do direito à saúde, apontando racionalidades e intencionalidades que orientam a atuação dos sujeitos no fazer saúde. B) Racionalidades do Controle Social (conselheiros de saúde), relacionada à identificação de processos psicossociais implicados na constituição da identidade com a política pública de saúde e com a memória da luta de classes. C) Relatos de vidas marcadas pela reificação (usuários do SUS), em que os conteúdos referem os conflitos sociais que causam dor, sofrimento e humilhação cotidiana para dezenas de milhões de brasileiros. A análise dos depoimentos nos permitiu identificar que o processo de reificação da saúde pode ser considerado determinante, tanto para a desestruturação do Sistema Único de Saúde, como para a perda da subjetividade e cidadania dos indivíduos. As atividades reificadas em saúde podem ser enfrentadas a partir da formulação de estratégias de organização com a comunidade, cuja síntese realizada com os usuários, permite identificar critérios de enfrentamento com base no cotidiano, dentro do processo saúde/doença / The naturalization of the mercantile character of health in Brazil has close ties with its history. Before the Unified Health System (SUS), health was not a right for everyone, let alone a state responsibility and was restricted to a portion of the working population that paid to ensure that benefit. Since the last century the private health is prioritized at the expense of a public service offering covering all social strata. This fact reflects the process of reification and commodification of health. This study aimed to analyze the broader socio-historical factors linked to the issue of health as a commodity and its impact on the SUS. The research was conducted with 27 participants, nine health secretaries, nine municipal health counselors users and nine SUS users, distributed in nine municipalities of the Macroregion South Triangle of Minas Gerais. For data collection were carried out individual interviews following evocation procedures, enunciation and verification. Recordings of filmed or audio-recorded interviews were transcribed in full. Data analysis was processed by the ex post facto content identification for the definition of categories and topics related to the process of reification of health. These results were analyzed from the perspective of historical and dialectical materialism. Three themes, one for each segment of respondents, grouped some determinants linked to the objective of the study: A) rationalities of the Unified Health System (health secretaries), in which contents have been gathered regarding the coping elements for the provision of the right to health, pointing rationality and intentions that guide the actions of individuals in making health. B) rationalities of social control (health counselors), related to identification of psychosocial processes involved in the formation of identity with the public health policy and with the memory of the class struggle. C) Reports of lives marked by reification (SUS users), in which the contents related social conflicts that cause pain, suffering and daily humiliation to tens of millions of Brazilians. The analysis of testimonies allowed us to identify that the health reification process can be considered decisive for both the disruption of the SUS, as for the loss of subjectivity and citizenship of individuals. The reified in health activities can be addressed from the formulation of organizational strategies with the community, whose synthesis performed with users, identifies coping criteria based on the daily life within the health/disease process.

This study examines the role of tertiary education in the development of a knowledge based economy, with particular reference to developing countries and in the particular case of the University of Botswana (UB). It presents evidence to suggest that the commodification of knowledge is important to the fulfilment of this role and that if UB were to embrace this notion, it would help focus the fragmented approach of business practices in the University. The study also asks whether the resource allocation model at UB supports commodification of knowledge and examines what alternative approaches could be adopted, concluding that the adoption of a formulaic resource allocation model would better support this aim. A case study approach was adopted especially for its potential to capture explanatory and descriptive data. The three phases of study used were firstly the documentary research where reports were inspected and classified into categories. The second phase concentrated on the semi-structured interviews with members of the senior management staff at UB that served to clarify, confirm, refute and/or corroborate documentary research outcomes. The third phase of the study combined the data collected from the different sources. In combining both quantitative and qualitative data this thesis took advantage of data complementarity, facilitation and triangulation. The findings of the study show that UB embraces the notion of knowledge based economy through advancing the intellectual and human resource capacity of the nation and the international community. However the definition of commodification was not uniformly understood across UB faculties. The study also finds that UB did not seem to have a resource allocation model but had a budgeting system that did not support commodification of knowledge. While the human resource accounted for 67% of the total budget of the institution there was no staff allocations model to manage it. The inadequate database was found to be a major contributing factor which was exacerbated by lack of clear business processes in certain critical areas. The principles underpinning commodification of knowledge could be traced in UB policies even though there was a need to strengthen systems, processes and quality control mechanisms to facilitate and support data collection and establishment of database. A practical system which has the potential to help establish a systemic approach that would interrogate business process in UB is proposed.

Ontario, Canada’s most populous province enacted its Heritage Act in 1975. The Ontario Heritage Act enables municipalities to conserve built heritage in a number of ways, including instituting heritage conservation districts. Heritage districts recognize and conserve built heritage that extend beyond the special architectural qualities of individual buildings. Port Dalhousie is a quaint community located on the south shore of Lake Ontario, and inextricably linked to the first three Welland Canals. Now a part of the City of St. Catharines, it was designated a heritage conservation district in 2003. However, after the designation an ambitious and controversial re-development plan was proposed for the community’s historic commercial core. The re-development aimed to revitalize the area, but in doing so also threatened to destroy the heritage. This case study used historical research, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires to investigate the cycle of heritage commodification, the effectiveness of public participation and the exercise of power as the various stakeholders in the community of Port Dalhousie deliberated over the future of its built heritage. Findings from this study reveal that sound governance and effective planning policies promoted public participation. The results also confirm that active civic involvement from local residents plays an integral role in heritage conservation, and influences developments that threaten heritage. This study recommends that heritage planning should be more proactive in municipal land use planning, and heritage guidelines for conservation areas should be part of broader heritage management programs where power sharing, participation, and decision making reflect social equity. The findings and recommendations from this study are intended to assist communities, managers and planners in future efforts to conserve built heritage.

Ontario, Canada’s most populous province enacted its Heritage Act in 1975. The Ontario Heritage Act enables municipalities to conserve built heritage in a number of ways, including instituting heritage conservation districts. Heritage districts recognize and conserve built heritage that extend beyond the special architectural qualities of individual buildings. Port Dalhousie is a quaint community located on the south shore of Lake Ontario, and inextricably linked to the first three Welland Canals. Now a part of the City of St. Catharines, it was designated a heritage conservation district in 2003. However, after the designation an ambitious and controversial re-development plan was proposed for the community’s historic commercial core. The re-development aimed to revitalize the area, but in doing so also threatened to destroy the heritage. This case study used historical research, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires to investigate the cycle of heritage commodification, the effectiveness of public participation and the exercise of power as the various stakeholders in the community of Port Dalhousie deliberated over the future of its built heritage. Findings from this study reveal that sound governance and effective planning policies promoted public participation. The results also confirm that active civic involvement from local residents plays an integral role in heritage conservation, and influences developments that threaten heritage. This study recommends that heritage planning should be more proactive in municipal land use planning, and heritage guidelines for conservation areas should be part of broader heritage management programs where power sharing, participation, and decision making reflect social equity. The findings and recommendations from this study are intended to assist communities, managers and planners in future efforts to conserve built heritage.

 The three terms heritage, legacy and treasure came across my mind and led me think about how strongly these three terms are correlated. Heritage is a great treasure in cultural terms. However, the terms legacy and treasure also literally suggest the commercial potential hidden in heritage, which can generate commercial benefits in monetary terms. Brand heritage can be a great marketing tool to add value to the products. By applying heritage driven marketing campaigns, the food and beverage brands received a huge success. Notable examples include the champagne brand Dom Perignon and the whisky brand Macallan. Sharing the traditional knowledge and how they followed the traditional practice in the modern days, these stories not only show how loyal they are to the traditional practice, but further enhance the “premiumness” of the brands. Fashion brands have also been using heritage marketing as a tool for brand building. Louis Vuitton has been using its heritage and craftsmanship in luggage making for brand building. Similarly, Hermes has been leveraging its history in scarves and fine craftsmanship as a way of heritage branding. This dissertation examines the Hong Kong lifestyle brand G.O.D. to understand how heritage commodification contributes to its relative success not only to the business but also in its promotion of Hong Kong local heritage. In order to understand the case, the company background, the process of heritage commodification via design and marketing is carefully dissected in this dissertation. To understand the impact of design with a twist approach on promoting Hong Kong heritage, the product design, elements selection criteria, marketing campaigns and shop design have been studied. To verify the relative success of the brand, a marketing survey has been conducted and the findings have been analyzed to understand the real market response towards the brand so as the effectiveness of promoting Hong Kong heritage via design product. / published_or_final_version / Conservation / Master / Master of Science in Conservation