Tourism in its modern garb is very new to China. Not until 1978 when the bamboo curtain was parted and the ‘Open Door’ policies introduced was international tourism welcomed. It is only 21 years ago, in 1984, that was tourism approved by the Chinese Government as an appropriate form of economic development that could contribute to the modernization of the country. The form that tourism takes in contemporary China, especially the development and presentation of natural sights and sites, demonstrates qualities that immediately set it apart from western forms of tourism development. While there are similar aspects – all part of the ubiquitous spread of ‘globalization’ – there is much that retains a unique Chineseness that is immediately distinctive. In analyzing the specific qualities of contemporary Chinese tourism it is argued that 4000 years of continuous culture, which has produced a body of understanding known as ‘Chinese common knowledge’, has been fundamental in directing and determining the way in which natural landscapes are utilized for contemporary tourism. The values inherent in this enduring cultural heritage are an amalgamation of Confucian thought, Doaist and Buddhist theology, folklore and an extraordinarily rich literary heritage in which the poem and calligraphy are regarded as the highest art forms. They imbue every natural landscape with a cultural overlay, drawing upon the immense strength of Chinese common knowledge in ways which make many such sights and sites incomprehensible to non-Chinese visitors because no interpretation is provided - since none is needed for their Chinese viewers. One outcome of this research is the identification of a Chinese tourist gaze that has many elements which distinguish it from the western tourist gaze. It is highly structured through sociolinguistic parameters which feature correlative and relational thinking (in which no individual entity exists in isolation but is connected to all things around it in dynamic relationships), and this has produced what I have termed ‘the relational tourist gaze’. The Chinese value system also includes a degree of anthropocentrism and anthropomorphism that stands in opposition to the western biocentric approach to conservation and maintenance of ‘naturalness’ and ‘wilderness.’ There is a pervasive view that nature is imperfect and ‘man’ has a responsibility to improve on nature to forge a symbiotic relationship, these sentiments summed up in the phrase known to all Chinese: ‘man and nature in harmony’. A significant component of a Chinese tourist gaze is thus what I have termed ‘the harmony gaze’ that contrast strongly with current western notions about wilderness and pristine nature. This thesis defines Chineseness and Chinese common knowledge, examines the particularities of the sociolinguistics of Chinese to illustrate the way in which this cultural heritage has been transmitted down through the centuries to the present day, and then analyses the manifestation of this knowledge and its attendant values in incorporating natural landscapes - mountains, caves, rivers – in contemporary tourism in China. The result is - ‘Bie you tian di’ – an altogether different world.

Leading philosophical accounts of joint activity, such as Michael Bratman’s account of ‘shared intentional activity’, take joint activity to be the outcome of two or more agents having a ‘shared intention’, where this is a certain pattern of mutually known prior intentions (plans) that are directed toward a common goal. With Bratman’s account as a foil, I address two lacunas that are relatively unexplored in the philosophical literature. The first lacuna concerns how to make sense of the apparently joint cooperative activities of agents that lack the capacities for planning and “mindreading” that one must have in order to be a party to a shared intention (consider, for example, the social play of young children or the cooperative hunting of non-human primates or social carnivores). The second lacuna concerns how participants (including adult human agents) are able to coordinate their actions “online”—that is, during action execution as a joint activity unfolds—without recourse to plans that specify in advance what they should do (consider the coordination involved when two friends meet and do a “high five”). Chapters 2 and 3 focus on the first lacuna, while chapters 4 and 5 focus on the second. In chapter 2, I focus on why participants must have mutual or common knowledge of each other’s intentions and beliefs in order to have a shared intention: Why must these attitudes be “out in the open”? I argue that, if participants lack the concept of belief, then one of the two main motivations for the common knowledge requirement—to filter out certain cases that intuitively aren’t cases of genuine joint activity—actually dissipates. Furthermore, a kind of “openness” that only requires of participants that they have the concept of goal but not that of belief can satisfy the other main motivation, to make sense of the idea that joint activities are non-accidentally coordinated. In chapter 3, I offer an account of a kind of joint activity in which agents such as young children and some non-human primates could participate, given what we know about their socio-cognitive capacities. In chapter 4, I argue that ‘shared intention’-accounts are unable to say much about spontaneous or skilful joint action because of the following widely accepted constraint on what one can intend: while an agent might intend—in the sense of commit to a plan—that “we” do something together, an agent cannot intend to perform “our” joint action. I reject this constraint and argue that some joint actions (such as a joint manoeuvre performed by two figure skaters) are joint in virtue of each participant having what I call ‘socially extended intention-in-action’ that overlap. In chapter 5, I review empirical work on subpersonal enabling mechanisms for the coordination of joint action. The review provides clues to what it is that enables participants to successfully coordinate their actions in the absence of plan-like intentions or beyond what such intentions specify. While what I address are lacunas rather than problems, an upshot of this thesis is that leading philosophical accounts of joint activity may have less explanatory scope than one might otherwise be led to believe. The accounts of joint activity and joint action that are presented in this thesis are arguably applicable to many of the joint activities and joint actions of adult human beings. The account also helps us avoid the false dichotomy between a very robust form of joint activity and a mere concatenation of purely individualistic actions—a dichotomy that accounts such as Bratman’s arguably invite us to adopt.

Esta tese é um trabalho de pesquisa teórica que discute as relações existentes entre autoria e plágio e suas implicações no âmbito da produção textual científica. O percurso teórico realizado permitiu aprofundar a compreensão e problematizar a temática destacando-se alguns núcleos de debate, sendo eles: 1)oscilações teórico-práticas entre as ideias de plágio e autoria: constatou-se que a discussão sobre o plágio precisa de uma abordagem que vá além da superficialidade pericial de identificação e punição de ladrões de palavras e ideias, mas que considere e problematize também aspectos como a necessidade de atualização do conceito de autoria e plágio; 2) especificidades do texto literário em comparação com o texto científico: embora a produção textual científica reserve algumas particularidades em relação ao texto literário, verificamos a possibilidade de integração das características comuns a ambos o que pode enriquecer a qualidade textual científica; 3) características de autoridade e responsabilidade no processo autoral: observamos que a autoria de um texto é uma forma de identidade que funciona como suporte de discursividade, o que atesta a credibilidade dos argumentos apresentados. Assim, concordamos com Foucault e reiteramos a ideia de autor como um fiador, aspecto que contribui na recuperação da finalidade da citação autoral em um texto científico; 4) distinções entre propriedade patrimonial e moral: refletimos que, com o advento da pós-modernidade e as novas possibilidades autorais, a apropriação patrimonial vem sendo alvo de críticas e questionamento seja pela forma mais rápida e fluída que as informações circulam pela internet, bem como pelo caráter público (common) do conhecimento. Consideramos que as ideias defendidas pelo commons paradigm são coerentes com os processos de circulação de ideias, que caracterizam a atualidade ao mesmo tempo em que defendem de modo procedente a concepção de que o conhecimento não é uma commodity como as outras e precisa ser distribuído de forma compartilhada. Constatamos que iniciativas exemplares neste sentido são as propostas de licenciamento creative commons e a adoção da marca de permissão Semion em obras que adotem a renúncia patrimonial; 5) as relações entre ética (leis morais) e técnica (normas e diretrizes): reconhecemos que o plágio pode ser uma falha técnica ou uma fraude ética, contudo concluímos que a condição autoral precede a ocorrência do plágio e é algo caracterizado por um ato de criação e estilo, marcado pela pessoalidade com que cada pesquisador percorre a rede de caminhos metodológicos, faz associações e estabelece implicações bem como interage socialmente. Concluímos que as concepções de plágio e autoria científica na atualidade correspondem às formas desatualizadas de entender dois fenômenos correlacionados que não podem ser mais interpretados com as categorias que precedem a revolução digital. Em nossa opinião, os estudos futuros em relação à autoria e ao plágio nos processos de produção textual científica deveriam explorar e aprofundar as reflexões e o debate sobre as correlações entre esses dois assuntos visando contribuírem para o desenvolvimento de uma conceituação atualizada sobre estes aspectos essenciais na produção científica. / This thesis is a work of theoretical research that discusses the existent relationship between authorship and plagiarism and its implications in the context of scientific textual output. The theoretical trajectory allowed to deepen understanding and to discuss the theme highlighting some debate cores, namely: 1 ) theoretical and practical oscillations between ideas of authorship and plagiarism: it was found that the discussion of plagiarism needs an approach that goes beyond the expert superficiality of identification and punishment of thieves of words and ideas, but also problematizes and considers aspects such as the need to update the concept of authorship and plagiarism; 2 ) specificities of literary text in comparison with scientific text: although scientific text production has some peculiarities different from literary text, we see the possibility of integrating common features of both, which can enhance scientific textual quality, 3) characteristics of authority and responsibility in the authoring process: we observe that the authorship of a text is a form of identity that supports discursivity which attests the credibility of arguments presented. Thus, we agree with Foucault and reiterate the idea of the author as a guarantor, which contributes to the recovery of authorial purpose of citation in a scientific text; 4 ) distinctions between moral and patrimonial property: we consider that, with the advent of postmodernity and new authorial possibilities, the patrimonial ownership has been target of criticism and questioning, whether due to the fastest and fluid manner information circulates on the internet, whether due to public nature (common) of knowledge. We believe that the ideas advocated by commons paradigm are consistent with the processes of circulation of ideas that characterize the present while defend, in a proceeding manner, the idea that knowledge is not a commodity as others and needs to be distributed in a shared manner. We found that exemplary initiatives in this direction are the proposals for creative commons licensing and adoption of Semion permission brand in works that adopt patrimony waiver; 5 ) relationship between ethics (moral laws) and technique (standards and guidelines): we recognize that plagiarism may be a technical glitch or an ethical fraud, but we concluded that the author\'s condition precedes the occurrence of plagiarism and is something characterized by an act of creation and style, marked by the personality with each researcher goes through the network of methodological approaches, makes associations, provides implications and interacts socially. We concluded that the concepts of plagiarism and scientific authorship nowadays correspond to outdated ways of understanding two related phenomena that cannot be interpreted with categories that precede the digital revolution. In our opinion, future studies regarding authorship and plagiarism in scientific processes of textual production should explore and deepen reflections and debate on the correlations between these two subjects aiming to contribute to the development of an updated conceptualization of these essential aspects of scientific production.

The increasing globalisation of the market is followed by increased competition between organisations. Therefore it becomes more important to create products with high customer value. To be able to create customer value, deep understanding of the customers’ needs must be obtained by employees, shared between them and transformed into products. Further consequences of globalisation are increasing differences between customers’ needs, which results in demand for customisable and flexible products.The purpose of this study was to analyse how organisations can create more customer value through increased knowledge integration. The focus was on how knowledge that already resides within a globally dispersed organisation can be integrated during the product development process.This study showed that customer value is created throughout the product development process by integrating the knowledge held by R&D and internal stakeholders. Different types of value are created at different phases in the product development process. One important finding is that different parts of the augmented value are created throughout the entire product development process. Since employees obtain different knowledge depending on which customer they interact with, it is important to utilise knowledge from a large number of employees with different roles and in different countries. Hence, the significance of knowledge integration must be disseminated and understood across the organisation. After completing the product development process additional customer value is created by the internal stakeholders’ who sell and implement the product, but it is during the product development process that the basis for their value creation is established.Knowledge needs to be integrated in a formalised, repeatable way, so that the R&D department can ensure that the right product is developed at the right time. Integration means that the tacit knowledge that resides within one employee is codified into an explicit form that can be exploited by more employees. Therefore, four steps must be performed and repeated iteratively to create and spread knowledge throughout the organisation. The first step includes communication by exchanging tacit knowledge. The second step entails documenting the knowledge, and the third step involves combining the knowledge residing in the organisations into one common knowledge system. The final step includes distributing the knowledge so that it recievess wide attention within the organisation. Several factors that have a negative impact on these four steps, and knowledge integration, need to be countered somehow. However, it was found that there are several mechanisms that facilitate knowledge integration, and most often the presence of several mechanisms at the same time had a better effect.

Esta tese é um trabalho de pesquisa teórica que discute as relações existentes entre autoria e plágio e suas implicações no âmbito da produção textual científica. O percurso teórico realizado permitiu aprofundar a compreensão e problematizar a temática destacando-se alguns núcleos de debate, sendo eles: 1)oscilações teórico-práticas entre as ideias de plágio e autoria: constatou-se que a discussão sobre o plágio precisa de uma abordagem que vá além da superficialidade pericial de identificação e punição de ladrões de palavras e ideias, mas que considere e problematize também aspectos como a necessidade de atualização do conceito de autoria e plágio; 2) especificidades do texto literário em comparação com o texto científico: embora a produção textual científica reserve algumas particularidades em relação ao texto literário, verificamos a possibilidade de integração das características comuns a ambos o que pode enriquecer a qualidade textual científica; 3) características de autoridade e responsabilidade no processo autoral: observamos que a autoria de um texto é uma forma de identidade que funciona como suporte de discursividade, o que atesta a credibilidade dos argumentos apresentados. Assim, concordamos com Foucault e reiteramos a ideia de autor como um fiador, aspecto que contribui na recuperação da finalidade da citação autoral em um texto científico; 4) distinções entre propriedade patrimonial e moral: refletimos que, com o advento da pós-modernidade e as novas possibilidades autorais, a apropriação patrimonial vem sendo alvo de críticas e questionamento seja pela forma mais rápida e fluída que as informações circulam pela internet, bem como pelo caráter público (common) do conhecimento. Consideramos que as ideias defendidas pelo commons paradigm são coerentes com os processos de circulação de ideias, que caracterizam a atualidade ao mesmo tempo em que defendem de modo procedente a concepção de que o conhecimento não é uma commodity como as outras e precisa ser distribuído de forma compartilhada. Constatamos que iniciativas exemplares neste sentido são as propostas de licenciamento creative commons e a adoção da marca de permissão Semion em obras que adotem a renúncia patrimonial; 5) as relações entre ética (leis morais) e técnica (normas e diretrizes): reconhecemos que o plágio pode ser uma falha técnica ou uma fraude ética, contudo concluímos que a condição autoral precede a ocorrência do plágio e é algo caracterizado por um ato de criação e estilo, marcado pela pessoalidade com que cada pesquisador percorre a rede de caminhos metodológicos, faz associações e estabelece implicações bem como interage socialmente. Concluímos que as concepções de plágio e autoria científica na atualidade correspondem às formas desatualizadas de entender dois fenômenos correlacionados que não podem ser mais interpretados com as categorias que precedem a revolução digital. Em nossa opinião, os estudos futuros em relação à autoria e ao plágio nos processos de produção textual científica deveriam explorar e aprofundar as reflexões e o debate sobre as correlações entre esses dois assuntos visando contribuírem para o desenvolvimento de uma conceituação atualizada sobre estes aspectos essenciais na produção científica. / This thesis is a work of theoretical research that discusses the existent relationship between authorship and plagiarism and its implications in the context of scientific textual output. The theoretical trajectory allowed to deepen understanding and to discuss the theme highlighting some debate cores, namely: 1 ) theoretical and practical oscillations between ideas of authorship and plagiarism: it was found that the discussion of plagiarism needs an approach that goes beyond the expert superficiality of identification and punishment of thieves of words and ideas, but also problematizes and considers aspects such as the need to update the concept of authorship and plagiarism; 2 ) specificities of literary text in comparison with scientific text: although scientific text production has some peculiarities different from literary text, we see the possibility of integrating common features of both, which can enhance scientific textual quality, 3) characteristics of authority and responsibility in the authoring process: we observe that the authorship of a text is a form of identity that supports discursivity which attests the credibility of arguments presented. Thus, we agree with Foucault and reiterate the idea of the author as a guarantor, which contributes to the recovery of authorial purpose of citation in a scientific text; 4 ) distinctions between moral and patrimonial property: we consider that, with the advent of postmodernity and new authorial possibilities, the patrimonial ownership has been target of criticism and questioning, whether due to the fastest and fluid manner information circulates on the internet, whether due to public nature (common) of knowledge. We believe that the ideas advocated by commons paradigm are consistent with the processes of circulation of ideas that characterize the present while defend, in a proceeding manner, the idea that knowledge is not a commodity as others and needs to be distributed in a shared manner. We found that exemplary initiatives in this direction are the proposals for creative commons licensing and adoption of Semion permission brand in works that adopt patrimony waiver; 5 ) relationship between ethics (moral laws) and technique (standards and guidelines): we recognize that plagiarism may be a technical glitch or an ethical fraud, but we concluded that the author\'s condition precedes the occurrence of plagiarism and is something characterized by an act of creation and style, marked by the personality with each researcher goes through the network of methodological approaches, makes associations, provides implications and interacts socially. We concluded that the concepts of plagiarism and scientific authorship nowadays correspond to outdated ways of understanding two related phenomena that cannot be interpreted with categories that precede the digital revolution. In our opinion, future studies regarding authorship and plagiarism in scientific processes of textual production should explore and deepen reflections and debate on the correlations between these two subjects aiming to contribute to the development of an updated conceptualization of these essential aspects of scientific production.

Har specialläraren i matematik en plats i folkhögskolan? Genom en kvalitativ intervjustudie av sex anställda på två olika folkhögskolor analyserades behovet och förväntningarna på en speciallärare i matematik. Tre kategorier av personalgrupper intervjuades: rektor, lärare i matematik och stödperson/ resurs. Resultatet visar att det finns ett uttalat behov av specialpedagogisk kompetens hos alla kategorier av intervjuade. Det framgår också att folkhögskolans arbetssätt har ett specialpedagogiskt perspektiv som till stor del kan fylla detta behov. Folkhögskolans verksamhet bygger på en god kommunikativ förmåga mellan deltagare och lärare och ett kontinuerligt professionellt samarbete mellan olika personalkategorier. Det bidrag en speciallärare kan tillföra i folkhögskolan är att utveckla lärmiljön och introducera nya verktyg i matematikundervisningen. / Does special educators in mathematics have a function in Folk High Schools? Through a study using a qualitative interview method, the need and the expectation of a special educator in mathematics were investigated. From two different Folk High Schools six employees from three different categories; principals, teacher in mathematics and assistants were interviewed. In the interviews an expression of a need for special education among the pupils were addressed. This need was shown to be fulfilled through the Folk High Schools way of teaching. The Folk High School education system is built on good communication between pupils and teachers and an extended collaboration between professions. A special educator can contribute with new tools for education in mathematics and develop the local school environment at the Folk High School.

This dissertation collects four papers on common knowledge and one on introspection principles in epistemic game theory. The first two papers offer a sustained argument against the importance of common knowledge and belief in explaining social behavior. Chapters 3 and 4 study the role of common knowledge of tautologies in standard models in epistemic logic and game theory. The first considers the problem as it relates to Robert Aumann’s Agreement Theorem; the second (joint work with Peter Fritz) studies it in models of awareness. The fifth paper corrects a claimed Agreement Theorem of Geanakoplos (1989), and exploits the corrected theorem to provide epistemic conditions for correlated equilibrium and Nash equilibrium.

O principal objetivo deste trabalho é mostrar que uma convenção social está fortemente relacionada com o conceito de equilíbrio correlacionado. Através da interação de longo prazo e do aprendizado, os agentes podem chegar a um acordo, mesmo com suposições pouco restritivas e que possibilitem uma interpretação mais natural e realista do conceito de equilíbrio em Teoria dos Jogos. Inicialmente a suposição de conhecimento comum é apresentado de maneira formal e informal. O conceito de equilíbrio correlacionado é apresentado com exemplos. Finalmente, a relação entre o equilíbrio correlacionado e a convenção social é analisada. / The main purpose of this dissertation is to show that a convention can be related to a correlated equilibrium. Through the long run interaction and learning, the players can reach an agreement, even if we relax the traditional assumptions of Game Theory, and we can find a more natural and plausible interpretation of equilibrium. Initially the common knowledge assumption is presented in a formal and informal way. The correlated equilibrium is presented with examples. Finally, the relation between correlated equilibrium and convention is analyzed.

O principal objetivo deste trabalho é mostrar que uma convenção social está fortemente relacionada com o conceito de equilíbrio correlacionado. Através da interação de longo prazo e do aprendizado, os agentes podem chegar a um acordo, mesmo com suposições pouco restritivas e que possibilitem uma interpretação mais natural e realista do conceito de equilíbrio em Teoria dos Jogos. Inicialmente a suposição de conhecimento comum é apresentado de maneira formal e informal. O conceito de equilíbrio correlacionado é apresentado com exemplos. Finalmente, a relação entre o equilíbrio correlacionado e a convenção social é analisada. / The main purpose of this dissertation is to show that a convention can be related to a correlated equilibrium. Through the long run interaction and learning, the players can reach an agreement, even if we relax the traditional assumptions of Game Theory, and we can find a more natural and plausible interpretation of equilibrium. Initially the common knowledge assumption is presented in a formal and informal way. The correlated equilibrium is presented with examples. Finally, the relation between correlated equilibrium and convention is analyzed.

O principal objetivo deste trabalho é mostrar que uma convenção social está fortemente relacionada com o conceito de equilíbrio correlacionado. Através da interação de longo prazo e do aprendizado, os agentes podem chegar a um acordo, mesmo com suposições pouco restritivas e que possibilitem uma interpretação mais natural e realista do conceito de equilíbrio em Teoria dos Jogos. Inicialmente a suposição de conhecimento comum é apresentado de maneira formal e informal. O conceito de equilíbrio correlacionado é apresentado com exemplos. Finalmente, a relação entre o equilíbrio correlacionado e a convenção social é analisada. / The main purpose of this dissertation is to show that a convention can be related to a correlated equilibrium. Through the long run interaction and learning, the players can reach an agreement, even if we relax the traditional assumptions of Game Theory, and we can find a more natural and plausible interpretation of equilibrium. Initially the common knowledge assumption is presented in a formal and informal way. The correlated equilibrium is presented with examples. Finally, the relation between correlated equilibrium and convention is analyzed.