Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Com base em um cenário econômico favorável combinado aos avanços tecnológicos das ciências dos materiais e processos de construção, nas últimas três décadas, as cidades brasileiras têm apresentado um crescimento substancial, no que diz respeito à construção de edifícios residenciais e comerciais de múltiplos andares. Atualmente, estes edifícios apresentam níveis de esbeltez elevados e têm sido construídos com estruturas cada vez mais ousadas e que englobam a experiência e o conhecimento dos engenheiros de estruturas. Como o principal objetivo dos projetistas está associado à concepção de estruturas mais leves, o projeto estrutural requer um conhecimento teórico substancial a fim de tornar compatíveis os requisitos arquitetônicos com as condições necessárias para a estabilidade. Assim sendo, o objetivo desta dissertação de mestrado é o de investigar o comportamento estrutural estático e dinâmico (linear e não linear) de um edifício misto (aço-concreto) de 20 pavimentos. Para tal, o estudo apresenta os resultados de análises estáticas e dinâmicas lineares e não lineares para ações de serviço. O comportamento estrutural do edifício, quando submetido às ações dinâmicas induzidas pelo vento, também foi investigado. Os resultados revelam que edifícios esbeltos merecem atenção especial, no que diz respeito à concepção do projeto estrutural, sendo que seu comportamento deve ser verificado através de metodologias completas que incluam análises do tipo estática e dinâmica (lineares e não lineares). / Based on a favorable economic scenario and technological advances of material sciences and construction processes, in the last three decades, the Brazilian cities have presented a substantial growth, with respect to construction of residential and commercial multi-storey buildings. Nowadays, these buildings present greater slenderness and have been constructed with increasingly daring structures that encompass the experience and knowledge of structural designers by using newly developed materials and technologies boosted by the ever-growing investigations on this field. As the structural designer main objective is related to produce increasingly lighter structures its conception requires a substantial amount of theoretical knowledge associated to structural design and construction processes, in order to make compatible the requirements of architecture with the necessary conditions to the stability. Considering all aspects mentioned before, the objective of this master dissertation is to investigate the structural behavior of a 20 floors steel-concrete composite building, based on static and dynamic analyses (linear and nonlinear). The present study has considered the results of a linear-elastic and non-linear geometric analysis for serviceability actions. The structural behavior of a 20 floors steel-concrete composite building under dynamic actions induced by the wind was also investigated. As a result, it must be emphasized that these buildings deserve special attention from the architectural and structural design and its behavior should be verified by methods including a full static and dynamic analysis (linear and non-linear).

A utilização do elemento estrutural viga mista aço-concreto, que consiste da associação de vigas de aço (perfil do tipo I) com lajes de concreto (maciça ou com forma de aço incorporada), têm sido considerável nas obras de engenharia civil, tanto no contexto mundial como no Brasil. Parte da eficiência desse elemento estrutural está diretamente relacionada ao trabalho em conjunto de ambos os materiais, ou seja, do tipo de interação entre aço e concreto. Para um comportamento estrutural adequado das vigas mistas, essa interação é garantida por meio de elementos metálicos denominados conectores de cisalhamento, cujas principais funções consistem em transferir forças de cisalhamento longitudinais do concreto para o aço na interface entre laje e viga, bem como impedir a separação vertical entre laje de concreto e perfil metálico, movimento conhecido como uplift. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo principal uma pesquisa com base em referências bibliográficas sobre o assunto vigas mistas, bem como é proposta a elaboração de um modelo numérico tridimensional para viga mista, objetivando simular satisfatoriamente seu comportamento estrutural, em temperatura ambiente e em situação de incêndio, cujos resultados serão comparados com valores, obtidos numérica e experimentalmente, extraídos de trabalhos apresentados por outros pesquisadores. Para a modelagem numérica, utilizou-se o código de cálculo ABAQUS 6.3-1, elaborado com base nos métodos dos elementos finitos (MEF) / Composite steel-concrete beam have been commonly considered in steel-framed building used in civil engineering, not only in Brazil but also in the worldwide context. The efficiency of this structural element is directly related with the type of interaction between steel beam and concrete slab, which is assured using metallic elements called shear connectors, with the objective to transfer longitudinal shear forces from concrete slab to steel beam, in the interface, and avoid the vertical separation between concrete slab and steel beam (uplift). In this sense, the aim of the present work is to carry out a bibliographical review about composite steel-concrete beam, as well as propose a three dimensional non-linear procedure for modeling only full shear connection in composite beam. The three-dimensional numerical models constructed must be capable of predicting de response of composite beam, in ambient temperature an also in elevated temperatures (fire conditions). The computer program ABAQUS 6.3-1, based on finite element method, was used to analyze the numerical modeling. The accuracy of the three-dimensional numerical models are demonstrated by analyses of the results obtained with the models which are compared with the experimental results, obtained and presented by others researches

Environmental awareness has strongly increased these last years, especially in the developed countries where societies have become increasingly preoccupied by the natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. At the same time, the increasing mass transportation demand throughout the European Union requires the development of new infrastructures. Life Cycle Assessment is increasingly used to provide environmental information for decision-makers, when a choice is to be made about the transportation mode to be implemented on a given route. In a life-cycle perspective, not only the environmental pressure of the operation of vehicles but also the burden from the infrastructure, in particular bridges as key links of the road and railway networks, has to be assessed when comparing transportation modes. Based on an extensive literature review, a simplified quantitative LCA is implemented in order to compare the environmental performance of two railway bridge designs. It is meant to be useful at an early stage in the design process, when no detailed information about the bridge is available, and when rough environmental estimations are needed. The Excel based model covers the entire life-cycle of the bridge, from raw material extraction to construction materials recycling and disposal. Various assumptions and omissions are made to narrow the scope of the analysis. For instance, processes that are found insignificant in the literature are omitted, and only a limited set of relevant emissions and impacts to the environment is considered. The model provides fully transparent results at the inventory and impact assessment level. The streamlined approach is tested by comparing the environmental burden throughout the life-cycle of a steel-concrete composite railway bridge on a single span, equipped with either a ballasted or a fixed concrete single track. The results show that the environmental impacts of the fixed track alternative are lower than that of the ballasted track alternative, for every impact categories. In a sustainable development perspective, it would thus have been preferable to install a fixed track over the bridge to reduce its overall impact on the environment by about 77%. The raw material phase is found decisive in the life-cycle of both alternatives. The frequency of the replacement of the track is identified as a key environmental parameter, since the road traffic emissions during bridge closure nearly overwhelmed the other life-cycle stages.

Textilbeton bzw. Carbonbeton ist ein mit textilen Strukturen bewehrter Verbundbaustoff. Tausende einzelne Filamente bilden Multifilamentgarne welche zu textilen Strukturen verarbeitet werden. Die einzelnen Filamente werden kraftschlüssig mit polymeren oder mineralischen Tränkungsmatrices zu homogenen Bewehrungsstrukturen verbunden. Eingebettet sind diese Textil- bzw. Carbonbewehrungen in anforderungsgerechten Betonmatrices. Die Eigenschaften der am Verbund beteiligten Ausgangsbaustoffe beeinflussen das Leistungsvermögen des Verbundbaustoffes und des Verbundes zwischen Bewehrung und Betonmatrix entscheidend. Das Verbundverhalten wird vereinfacht in zwei Bereiche unterteilt. In den Haftverbund, welcher bereits bei kleinsten Verformungen zerstört wird. Beim Überschreiten des Haftverbundes wird von einem beginnenden Schlupf zwischen Bewehrung und umhüllender Betonmatrix ausgegangen. Und den Reibverbund, welcher über große Verschiebungen hinweg aufrechterhalten werden kann. Der Reibverbund ist von durch Schlupf erzeugter Reibung zwischen Bewehrung und umhüllender Betonmatrix geprägt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden unterschiedlichste Bewehrungsstrukturen auf ihr charakteristisches Verbundverhalten in einem Prüfalter von 28 Tagen bei Raumtemperatur und erhöhten Temperaturen bis 500 °C hin untersucht. Das Verbundverhalten wies je nach verwendeter Materialkombination und Geometrie der Bewehrungsstruktur sehr andersartige Verbundcharakteristika auf. Dies bezieht sich sowohl auf den Haftverbund (Anstieg der Verbundkurve) als auch auf den Reibverbund (Höhe und Neigung des Reibplateaus). Die Leistungsverluste im Verbund unter Temperatureinwirkung fielen ebenfalls sehr unterschiedlich aus. Wesentliche Ursache der Abnahme der übertragbaren Verbundkräfte ist bei polymeren Tränkungssystemen auf die Überschreitung der Glasübergangstemperatur und bei mineralisch getränkten Garnstrukturen auf Schwindverformungen infolge Dehydrierung zurückzuführen. Aus der Vielzahl der durchgeführten Verbunduntersuchungen mit sehr unterschiedlichen Bewehrungstypen, konnte ein Ansatz zur einheitlichen bzw. vergleichenden Beschreibung des sogenannten Haftverbundes erstellt werden. Hierbei liegt der Schwerpunkt auf dem Schlupfbeginn zwischen Bewehrung und Betonmatrix. Die experimentelle Ermittlung des Schlupfbeginnes erfolgte durch die Messung des Bewehrungseinzuges, bei gestaffelten Verankerungslängen von 10 mm bis 40 mm. Als charakteristische Kenngrößen des Verbundmodells wurde der Schlupffortschrittsfluss, welcher den Schlupffortschritt in Abhängigkeit der auftretenden Verbundkräfte darstellt, als wesentlich betrachtet. Der Nachweis des Schlupffortschrittes zwischen Bewehrungselement und umhüllender Betonmatrix erfolgte mithilfe eines Bemessungsansatzes zur Rissbreiten-bemessung im Grenzzustand der Gebrauchstauglichkeit. Mit Hilfe dieses Bemessungs-ansatzes kann eine Bemessung im Grenzzustand der Gebrauchstauglichkeit für die Rissbreitenbemessung im auf Zug beanspruchten Bauteil und für die Schlupffreiheit am Ende der Endverankerung angewendet werden.:1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Problemstellung 1 1.2 Ziel der Arbeit 3 1.3 Aufbau der Arbeit 4 2 Stand des Wissens 5 2.1 Komponenten des Verbundbaustoffes Carbonbeton – Carbonfaser 5 2.1.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 5 2.1.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 6 2.1.3 Schlichte auf Filamentoberfläche 8 2.2 Komponenten des Verbundbaustoffes Carbonbeton – Tränkungsmatrix 9 2.2.1 Funktion und Anforderungen 9 2.2.2 Polymerbasierte Tränkungsmatrices 10 2.2.2.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 10 2.2.2.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 11 2.2.3 Mineralische Tränkungsmatrices 13 2.2.3.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 13 2.2.3.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 16 2.2.4 Technologie der Carbonfasertränkung 16 2.3 Komponenten des Verbundbaustoffes Carbonbeton – Feinbetonmatrix 19 2.3.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 19 2.3.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 22 2.4 Beschreibung des Verbundverhaltens 24 2.4.1 Verbundspannungen in vielen Ebenen 24 2.4.2 Idealisierung des Bewehrungselements 24 2.4.3 Einflussfaktoren auf das Verbundverhalten 26 2.4.4 Verbundspannungs-Schlupf-Beziehung (VSB) 27 2.4.4.1 Idealisierung der VSB 27 2.4.4.2 VSB – Stahlbeton 28 2.4.4.3 VSB – Spannbeton 30 2.4.4.4 VSB nach Krüger 31 2.4.4.5 VSB nach Banholzer 32 2.4.4.6 VSB nach Richter 33 2.4.4.7 VSB nach Lepenies 34 2.4.4.8 VSB nach Lorenz 34 2.4.5 Zusammenfassung zum Thema Verbundspannungs-Schlupf-Beziehung 36 2.4.6 Endverankerung 38 2.5 Dehnkörpertragverhalten 40 2.5.1 Idealisierung Dehnkörpertragverhalten 40 2.5.2 Rissentwicklung 41 2.5.3 Anforderungen an Risse 42 2.6 Zusammenfassung Stand des Wissens 43 3 Materialien 45 3.1 Materialkonzept 45 3.2 Referenzbewehrungen 45 3.2.1 Carbonbewehrung mit Styrol-Butadien-Tränkung (SBR) 45 3.2.2 Carbonbewehrung mit Epoxidharz-Tränkung (EP) 46 3.2.3 Carbonbewehrung mit Acrylat-Tränkung (ACR) 46 3.2.4 Edelstahldraht (Stahl) 47 3.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrungselemente (MIN) 48 3.3.1 Ausgangsmaterialien 48 3.3.2 Zusammensetzung und Herstellung der Tränkungssuspension 49 3.3.3 Mineralisch gebundene Carbonfaserbewehrung der ersten Generation 50 3.3.4 Mineralisch gebundene Carbonfaserbewehrung der zweiten Generation 52 3.3.5 Vorkonditionierung 53 3.4 Feinbetonmatrix 54 3.4.1 Ausgangsmaterialien und Zusammensetzung 54 3.4.2 Herstellung und Eigenschaften des frischen Feinbetons 55 3.4.3 Festbetoneigenschaften 56 4 Experimentelle Methoden 59 4.1 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch 59 4.1.1 Allgemeines 59 4.1.2 Probekörpergeometrie 60 4.1.3 Herstellung, Nachbehandlung, Vorkonditionierung 60 4.1.4 Prüfung bei Temperaturen bis 200 °C (Verfahren I) 61 4.1.5 Prüfung bei Temperaturen über 200 °C (Verfahren II) 63 4.1.6 Aufbereitung, Darstellung und Auswertung der Messergebnisse 64 4.1.6.1 Numerische Vereinfachung der gemessenen Verschiebungs-Auszugskraftbeziehungen 64 4.1.6.2 Darstellung und Normierung der Werte der Auszugskraft 65 4.1.6.3 Darstellung und Auswertung der Einzugsweg-Kraftkurven 66 4.1.6.4 Ermittlung der Verbundsteifigkeit 68 4.1.6.5 Ermittlung der Auszugsarbeit 68 4.1.7 Kritische Bewertung der Versuchsanordnungen 69 4.1.7.1 Probekörpergeometrie und Spannungszustände 69 4.1.7.2 Messtechnik 70 4.1.7.3 Prüfungen bei hohen Temperaturen 70 4.2 Dehnkörperversuch 72 4.2.1 Allgemeines 72 4.2.2 Probekörpergeometrie 72 4.2.3 Herstellung und Nachbehandlung 73 4.2.4 Prüfung und Messmethoden 74 4.2.5 Auswertung der Messergebnisse 75 4.2.5.1 Kraft-Dehnungs-Verhalten und Faserspannung-Dehnungs-Verhalten 75 4.2.5.2 Rissentwicklung 75 4.2.6 Kritische Bewertung der Versuchsanordnung 77 4.2.6.1 Probekörpergeometrie und Materialauswahl 77 4.2.6.2 Messtechnik 77 4.3 Gefügeanalytische Verfahren 78 4.3.1 Mikroskopische Untersuchungen 78 4.3.1.1 Rasterelektronenmikroskopie -REM 78 4.3.1.2 Digitalmikroskopie 79 4.3.2 Thermoanalytische Messverfahren 79 4.3.3 Quecksilberporosimetrie 80 5 Untersuchungsprogramm 81 5.1 Betrachtete Materialien 81 5.2 Festlegung der Prüftemperaturen 81 5.3 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch 82 5.3.1 Prüfung bei Raumtemperatur 82 5.3.2 Prüfung bei erhöhten Temperaturen 82 5.4 Dehnkörperversuch 85 5.5 Begleitende analytische Untersuchungen 86 6 Experimentelle Ergebnisse 87 6.1 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch bei 20 °C 87 6.1.1 Referenzbewehrungen 87 6.1.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 88 6.1.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 90 6.1.4 Schubspannung-Auszugsweg-Beziehungen 92 6.1.5 Auszugsweg vs. Einzugsweg 93 6.1.5.1 Referenzbewehrungen 93 6.1.5.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 94 6.1.5.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 95 6.2 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch bei erhöhten Temperaturen 97 6.2.1 Referenzbewehrungen 97 6.2.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 98 6.2.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 99 6.2.4 Vorkonditionierte mineralisch gebundene Bewehrungen 100 6.3 Dehnkörperversuch 102 6.3.1 Kraft-Dehnungs-Verhalten und Faserspannung-Dehnungs-Verhalten 102 6.3.2 Rissbreiten und Rissabstände 104 6.3.2.1 Referenzbewehrungen 104 6.3.2.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 106 6.3.2.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 107 6.3.2.4 Zusammenfassung 108 6.4 Gefügeanalytische Untersuchungen 110 6.4.1 Thermoanalytische Untersuchungen 110 6.4.2 Ergebnisse der Quecksilber-Porosimetrie 111 7 Bewertung der Ergebnisse 113 7.1 Verbundverhalten 113 7.1.1 Unterteilung der Verbundkurve 113 7.1.2 Kennwerte der Verbundkurve 114 7.1.2.1 Reine Kraftwerte 114 7.1.2.2 Verbundmodul 115 7.1.2.3 Auszugsarbeit 115 7.1.3 Einflussfaktoren und Phänomene 116 7.1.3.1 Raumtemperatur 116 7.1.3.2 Erhöhte Temperatur 119 7.2 Bemessungs-Modell im Grenzzustand der Gebrauchstauglichkeit (GZG) 122 7.2.1 Dehnkörper 122 7.2.1.1 Trag- und Verformungsverhalten 122 7.2.1.2 Rissentwicklung/Lasteinleitungslänge 123 7.2.1.3 Rissbreitenbemessung 129 7.2.2 Endverankerungslänge 130 7.2.2.1 Tragverhalten und Rissentwicklung 130 7.2.2.2 Bemessung der Einbindelänge und Rissbreiten 133 8 Baupraktische Dimension der Erkenntnisse 136 8.1 Ausgangsmaterialien 136 8.1.1 Carbonfaser-Bewehrung 136 8.1.2 Feinbetonmatrix 136 8.1.3 Verbundbaustoff 137 8.2 Potentielle Anwendungsfelder 139 8.3 Bauen neu denken! 141 9 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 142 9.1 Zusammenfassung 142 9.1.1 Verbundverhalten 142 9.1.2 Bemessungs-Modell für den Grenzzustand der Gebrauchstauglichkeit 142 9.2 Ausblick 144 10 Literaturverzeichnis 146 Anhang A: Abkürzungen, Formelzeichen/Symbole, Einheiten 154 Anhang B: Messkurven Auszugsversuche bei Raumtemperatur 158 Anhang C: Messkurven bei erhöhten Temperaturen 167 Anhang D: Messkurven Dehnkörperversuche 179 / Textile reinforced concrete or carbon reinforced concrete is a composite building material reinforced with textile structures. Thousands of single filaments form multifilament yarns which are processed to textile structures. The textile filaments are bonded with polymeric or mineral impregnation materials to form homogeneous reinforcement structures. These textile or carbon reinforcements are embedded in concrete matrices that fulfil the specific requirements. The mechanical properties of the base materials involved in the compound have a decisive influence on the performance of the composite material and the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete matrix. In simplified terms, the bond behavior is divided into two areas. The adhesive bond, which is destroyed by even the smallest deformations. When the bond is exceeded, it is assumed that the slip between the reinforcement and the surrounding concrete matrix begins. And the frictional bond, which can be maintained over large displacements. The frictional bond is characterized by slip-generated friction between the reinforcement and the encasing concrete matrix. In the present study, a wide variation of reinforcement structures was investigated for their characteristic bond behavior at a test age of 28 days at room temperature and elevated temperatures up to 500 °C. The bond behavior of the different reinforcement structures was found to be very different depending on the type of reinforcement used. The bond behavior exhibited very different bond characteristics depending on the material combination used and the geometry of the reinforcement structure. This refers to both, the adhesive bond and the frictional bond. The performance losses in the bond under the influence of temperature also varied greatly. The main cause of the decrease in composite performance was due to the glass transition temperature being exceeded in the case of polymer impregnation systems and to shrinkage deformation as a result of dehydration in the case of mineral-impregnated yarn structures. From the large number of bond investigations carried out with very different types of reinforcement, it was possible to develop an approach for a uniform or comparative description of the bond. The focus here is on the beginning of slip between the reinforcement and the concrete matrix. The experimental determination of the slip beginning was carried out by measuring the reinforcement pull-in, with stepped anchorage lengths from 10 mm to 40 mm. The slip progress flow, which represents the slip progress as a function of the applied bond forces, was considered essential as a characteristic parameter of the bond model. The slip propagation between the reinforcement element and the surrounding concrete matrix was verified using a design approach for crack width design in the serviceability limit state. With the help of this design approach, a serviceability limit state design can be applied for the crack width design in the tensile stressed component and for the no-slip design at the end of the final anchorage.:1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Problemstellung 1 1.2 Ziel der Arbeit 3 1.3 Aufbau der Arbeit 4 2 Stand des Wissens 5 2.1 Komponenten des Verbundbaustoffes Carbonbeton – Carbonfaser 5 2.1.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 5 2.1.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 6 2.1.3 Schlichte auf Filamentoberfläche 8 2.2 Komponenten des Verbundbaustoffes Carbonbeton – Tränkungsmatrix 9 2.2.1 Funktion und Anforderungen 9 2.2.2 Polymerbasierte Tränkungsmatrices 10 2.2.2.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 10 2.2.2.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 11 2.2.3 Mineralische Tränkungsmatrices 13 2.2.3.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 13 2.2.3.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 16 2.2.4 Technologie der Carbonfasertränkung 16 2.3 Komponenten des Verbundbaustoffes Carbonbeton – Feinbetonmatrix 19 2.3.1 Zusammensetzung und Struktur 19 2.3.2 Mechanische Eigenschaften und Temperaturverhalten 22 2.4 Beschreibung des Verbundverhaltens 24 2.4.1 Verbundspannungen in vielen Ebenen 24 2.4.2 Idealisierung des Bewehrungselements 24 2.4.3 Einflussfaktoren auf das Verbundverhalten 26 2.4.4 Verbundspannungs-Schlupf-Beziehung (VSB) 27 2.4.4.1 Idealisierung der VSB 27 2.4.4.2 VSB – Stahlbeton 28 2.4.4.3 VSB – Spannbeton 30 2.4.4.4 VSB nach Krüger 31 2.4.4.5 VSB nach Banholzer 32 2.4.4.6 VSB nach Richter 33 2.4.4.7 VSB nach Lepenies 34 2.4.4.8 VSB nach Lorenz 34 2.4.5 Zusammenfassung zum Thema Verbundspannungs-Schlupf-Beziehung 36 2.4.6 Endverankerung 38 2.5 Dehnkörpertragverhalten 40 2.5.1 Idealisierung Dehnkörpertragverhalten 40 2.5.2 Rissentwicklung 41 2.5.3 Anforderungen an Risse 42 2.6 Zusammenfassung Stand des Wissens 43 3 Materialien 45 3.1 Materialkonzept 45 3.2 Referenzbewehrungen 45 3.2.1 Carbonbewehrung mit Styrol-Butadien-Tränkung (SBR) 45 3.2.2 Carbonbewehrung mit Epoxidharz-Tränkung (EP) 46 3.2.3 Carbonbewehrung mit Acrylat-Tränkung (ACR) 46 3.2.4 Edelstahldraht (Stahl) 47 3.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrungselemente (MIN) 48 3.3.1 Ausgangsmaterialien 48 3.3.2 Zusammensetzung und Herstellung der Tränkungssuspension 49 3.3.3 Mineralisch gebundene Carbonfaserbewehrung der ersten Generation 50 3.3.4 Mineralisch gebundene Carbonfaserbewehrung der zweiten Generation 52 3.3.5 Vorkonditionierung 53 3.4 Feinbetonmatrix 54 3.4.1 Ausgangsmaterialien und Zusammensetzung 54 3.4.2 Herstellung und Eigenschaften des frischen Feinbetons 55 3.4.3 Festbetoneigenschaften 56 4 Experimentelle Methoden 59 4.1 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch 59 4.1.1 Allgemeines 59 4.1.2 Probekörpergeometrie 60 4.1.3 Herstellung, Nachbehandlung, Vorkonditionierung 60 4.1.4 Prüfung bei Temperaturen bis 200 °C (Verfahren I) 61 4.1.5 Prüfung bei Temperaturen über 200 °C (Verfahren II) 63 4.1.6 Aufbereitung, Darstellung und Auswertung der Messergebnisse 64 4.1.6.1 Numerische Vereinfachung der gemessenen Verschiebungs-Auszugskraftbeziehungen 64 4.1.6.2 Darstellung und Normierung der Werte der Auszugskraft 65 4.1.6.3 Darstellung und Auswertung der Einzugsweg-Kraftkurven 66 4.1.6.4 Ermittlung der Verbundsteifigkeit 68 4.1.6.5 Ermittlung der Auszugsarbeit 68 4.1.7 Kritische Bewertung der Versuchsanordnungen 69 4.1.7.1 Probekörpergeometrie und Spannungszustände 69 4.1.7.2 Messtechnik 70 4.1.7.3 Prüfungen bei hohen Temperaturen 70 4.2 Dehnkörperversuch 72 4.2.1 Allgemeines 72 4.2.2 Probekörpergeometrie 72 4.2.3 Herstellung und Nachbehandlung 73 4.2.4 Prüfung und Messmethoden 74 4.2.5 Auswertung der Messergebnisse 75 4.2.5.1 Kraft-Dehnungs-Verhalten und Faserspannung-Dehnungs-Verhalten 75 4.2.5.2 Rissentwicklung 75 4.2.6 Kritische Bewertung der Versuchsanordnung 77 4.2.6.1 Probekörpergeometrie und Materialauswahl 77 4.2.6.2 Messtechnik 77 4.3 Gefügeanalytische Verfahren 78 4.3.1 Mikroskopische Untersuchungen 78 4.3.1.1 Rasterelektronenmikroskopie -REM 78 4.3.1.2 Digitalmikroskopie 79 4.3.2 Thermoanalytische Messverfahren 79 4.3.3 Quecksilberporosimetrie 80 5 Untersuchungsprogramm 81 5.1 Betrachtete Materialien 81 5.2 Festlegung der Prüftemperaturen 81 5.3 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch 82 5.3.1 Prüfung bei Raumtemperatur 82 5.3.2 Prüfung bei erhöhten Temperaturen 82 5.4 Dehnkörperversuch 85 5.5 Begleitende analytische Untersuchungen 86 6 Experimentelle Ergebnisse 87 6.1 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch bei 20 °C 87 6.1.1 Referenzbewehrungen 87 6.1.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 88 6.1.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 90 6.1.4 Schubspannung-Auszugsweg-Beziehungen 92 6.1.5 Auszugsweg vs. Einzugsweg 93 6.1.5.1 Referenzbewehrungen 93 6.1.5.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 94 6.1.5.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 95 6.2 Einseitiger Auszugsversuch bei erhöhten Temperaturen 97 6.2.1 Referenzbewehrungen 97 6.2.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 98 6.2.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 99 6.2.4 Vorkonditionierte mineralisch gebundene Bewehrungen 100 6.3 Dehnkörperversuch 102 6.3.1 Kraft-Dehnungs-Verhalten und Faserspannung-Dehnungs-Verhalten 102 6.3.2 Rissbreiten und Rissabstände 104 6.3.2.1 Referenzbewehrungen 104 6.3.2.2 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der ersten Generation 106 6.3.2.3 Mineralisch gebundene Bewehrung der zweiten Generation 107 6.3.2.4 Zusammenfassung 108 6.4 Gefügeanalytische Untersuchungen 110 6.4.1 Thermoanalytische Untersuchungen 110 6.4.2 Ergebnisse der Quecksilber-Porosimetrie 111 7 Bewertung der Ergebnisse 113 7.1 Verbundverhalten 113 7.1.1 Unterteilung der Verbundkurve 113 7.1.2 Kennwerte der Verbundkurve 114 7.1.2.1 Reine Kraftwerte 114 7.1.2.2 Verbundmodul 115 7.1.2.3 Auszugsarbeit 115 7.1.3 Einflussfaktoren und Phänomene 116 7.1.3.1 Raumtemperatur 116 7.1.3.2 Erhöhte Temperatur 119 7.2 Bemessungs-Modell im Grenzzustand der Gebrauchstauglichkeit (GZG) 122 7.2.1 Dehnkörper 122 7.2.1.1 Trag- und Verformungsverhalten 122 7.2.1.2 Rissentwicklung/Lasteinleitungslänge 123 7.2.1.3 Rissbreitenbemessung 129 7.2.2 Endverankerungslänge 130 7.2.2.1 Tragverhalten und Rissentwicklung 130 7.2.2.2 Bemessung der Einbindelänge und Rissbreiten 133 8 Baupraktische Dimension der Erkenntnisse 136 8.1 Ausgangsmaterialien 136 8.1.1 Carbonfaser-Bewehrung 136 8.1.2 Feinbetonmatrix 136 8.1.3 Verbundbaustoff 137 8.2 Potentielle Anwendungsfelder 139 8.3 Bauen neu denken! 141 9 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 142 9.1 Zusammenfassung 142 9.1.1 Verbundverhalten 142 9.1.2 Bemessungs-Modell für den Grenzzustand der Gebrauchstauglichkeit 142 9.2 Ausblick 144 10 Literaturverzeichnis 146 Anhang A: Abkürzungen, Formelzeichen/Symbole, Einheiten 154 Anhang B: Messkurven Auszugsversuche bei Raumtemperatur 158 Anhang C: Messkurven bei erhöhten Temperaturen 167 Anhang D: Messkurven Dehnkörperversuche 179

Yes / This paper explores the development of the most suitable machine learning models for predicting the bending capacity of steel and FRP (Fiber Reinforced Ploymer) bars hybrid reinforced ECC (Engineered Cementitious Composites)-concrete composite beams. Five different machine learning models, namely Support Vector Regression (SVR), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), Random Forest (RF), and Extremely Randomized Trees (ERT), were employed. To train and evaluate these predictive models, the study utilized a database comprising 150 experimental data points from the literature on steel and FRP bars hybrid reinforced ECC-concrete composite beams. Additionally, Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) analysis was employed to assess the impact of input features on the prediction outcomes. Furthermore, based on the optimal model identified in the research, a graphical user interface (GUI) was designed to facilitate the analysis of the bending capacity of hybrid reinforced ECC-concrete composite beams in practical applications. The results indicate that the XGBoost algorithm exhibits high accuracy in predicting bending capacity, demonstrating the lowest root mean square error, mean absolute error, and mean absolute percentage error, as well as the highest coefficient of determination on the testing dataset among all models. SHAP analysis indicates that the equivalent reinforcement ratio, design strength of FRP bars, and height of beam cross-section are significant feature parameters, while the influence of the compressive strength of concrete is minimal. The predictive models and graphical user interface (GUI) developed can offer engineers and researchers with a reliable predictive method for the bending capacity of steel and FRP bars hybrid reinforced ECC-concrete composite beams.

As pontes tradicionais de madeira no Brasil, nem sempre atingem as condições plenamente satisfatórias em estradas vicinais, exigem manutenção contínua e a maioria não está adequada ao tráfego pesado usual. As pontes mistas de madeira e concreto destacam-se como alternativa econômica apresenta grande resistência e rigidez além de exigir baixa manutenção. Neste trabalho os estudos dos tabuleiros mistos de madeira e concreto para pontes desenvolveram-se em três fases: estudo da ancoragem de barras de aço coladas em peças estruturais de madeira; estudo dos conectores de cisalhamento formados por barras de aço coladas na madeira em corpos-de-prova mistos de madeira e concreto e, estudos; construções e análises de protótipos de tabuleiros mistos de madeira e concreto. Nos estudos de ancoragens, as barras de aço com superfície deformada, do tipo CA-50 com tensão de escoamento 'F IND.Y,K' = 500 MPa, foram coladas em furos com diâmetros maiores, inclinadas de '0, 45 e 90 GRAUS' em relação às fibras das madeiras. Utilizaram-se quatro tipos de resina epóxi e uma poliuretana, considerando as principais variáveis que influenciam na resistência de ancoragem. Os corpos-de-prova foram construídos com amostragens de madeiras de: Eucalyptus citriodora (ρ 12% = 1000 kg/'M POT.3') e Pinus oocarpa shiede (ρ 12% = 550 kg/'M POT.3'). Os testes de ancoragem apresentam as estimativas das resistências médias obtidas por meio de análise de regressão múltipla e as resistências características, obtidas pelo limite inferior do intervalo de confiança a 90%. Nos estudos dos conectores de cisalhamento utilizaram-se corpos-de-prova mistos, do tipo push out, executados com madeira roliça natural de Eucalyptus citriodora tratada com CCA e concreto armado de média resistência. Os conectores de cisalhamento, em três variações, foram executados com barras de aço do tipo CA-50 ancoradas na madeira, com a resina epóxi SIKADUR 32 fluido e inclinados de '45 GRAUS' em relação às fibras, os resultados apresentam, as resistências últimas médias, as resistências características; os valores médios e os valores característicos dos módulos de deslizamento da conexão. Nos estudos, projetos e execuções de dois tabuleiros mistos, de madeira e concreto, utilizaram-se toras de Eucalyptus citriodora tratadas com CCA, concreto armado de média resistência e conectores de barras de aço coladas com resina epóxi no formato X. Análises estáticas foram realizadas submetendo os tabuleiros às provas de carga, utilizando caminhões. Os deslocamentos na linha central transversal foram medidos e comparados com os valores teóricos calculados usando um modelo de cálculo que considera o tabuleiro misto como uma placa ortotrópica equivalente. Os conectores apresentaram alta resistência; alta rigidez e modo de ruptura uniforme. Os tabuleiros mistos de madeira e concreto apresentaram muito bom desempenho, confirmaram-se as hipóteses fundamentais e o modelo de cálculo proposto. / The traditional timber bridges in secondary roads in Brazil not always meet the requirements of quality, but they also demand continuing maintenance and adequacy to heavy traffic. The mixed wood-concrete deck bridges arise as a viable alternative, because of its low construction cost, low maintenance and its high strength and stiffness. In this thesis the mixed wood concrete deck bridge studies was showed in three phases: the experimental pull out strength results of bonded-in steel rods in wood beams studs; the experimental analysis on shear connectors in mixed wood concrete specimens using bonded-in steel bars and, designs; constructions and statistics tests on log-concrete composed deck bridges was presented too. In the anchorage studies the deformed and reinforced CA-50 steel bars, with the minimum yield strength of 500 Mpa, were bonded in holes drilled at angles of '0, 45 and 90 DEGREES' between the rods and on the direction of grain. Four types of epoxy and one polyurethane adhesive were used regarding the influence of the most significant variables. The specimens were made using Eucalyptus citriodora (ρ 12% = 1000 kg/'M POT.3') and Pinus oocarpa shiede (ρ 12% = 550 kg/'M POT.3') beams. The pull out tests presents the median strength results estimated by multiple regression analysis and the characteristics response estimated by the lower range in 90% of the confidence interval. In the shear connections studies were carried using specimens of push out tests type made of logs of Eucalyptus citriodora treated with CCA and medium strength reinforced concrete. The shear connectors, in three shapes, were made with CA-50 steel bars bonded-in wood with SIKADUR 32 fluid epoxi resin, with '45 DEGREES' angles between the rods and on the direction of grain. The results presents the ultimate limit strength median, the characteristics strength, the slip modulus medians and the characteristics slip modulus. In the studies, designs and executions of two mixed wood-concrete decks bridge were used made of logs of Eucalyptus citriodora treated with CCA, medium strength reinforced concrete, and bonded-in steel CA-50 rods, as shear connectors in X format. Same static loads test on the bridges was carried out using a truck. Deflections in the medium span transversal directions were measured and analytically predicted using an equivalent orthotropic plate model. The shear connectors showed high ultimate strength and stiffness and, uniforms failure mode. The results showed a very good performance to the composed log-concrete deck bridges, it confirms the fundamental hypothesis and calculus model suggested.

Um pilar misto aço-concreto consiste basicamente de um elemento de aço, simples ou composto, predominantemente comprimido, que trabalhe em conjunto com o concreto simples ou armado. Há basicamente dois tipos de pilar misto: os revestidos e os preenchidos. Os revestidos são formados por um perfil de aço embutido em uma seção de concreto, garantindo a proteção ao fogo (havendo necessidade de armaduras). Os pilares preenchidos são tubos de aço, circulares ou retangulares, preenchidos com concreto, dispensando qualquer tipo de armadura e a necessidade do uso de formas; porém para proteger do fogo e da corrosão exige-se um tratamento \"extra\" do tubo de aço. A norma brasileira NBR 8800/86 - \"Projeto e execução de estruturas de aço de edifícios\" quanto as estruturas mistas se dedica apenas àquelas submetidas à flexão simples (vigas mistas), não abordando as estruturas basicamente comprimidas (pilares mistos). Já as normas LRFD-AISC/86 - \"Load and resistance factor design\", Eurocode 4, BS 5400 apresentam considerações específicas sobre o dimensionamento de barras axialmente comprimidas e flexo-comprimidas, tratando tanto dos elementos revestidos quanto dos preenchidos. Do ponto de vista estrutural, são analisadas e discutidas as prescrições das principais normas estrangeiras aplicáveis. Quanto aos aspectos construtivos, apresentam-se técnicas de execução e de acabamento, dando especial atenção a questão da resistência ao fogo. / A composite column may be defined as a member made of a structural steel section, basicaly under compression, working with simple or reinforced concrete. There are basically two kinds of steel-concrete composite columns: structural steel section encased in concrete which has fire protection and it is necessary to use reinforcement and tubes filled with concrete which it is not necessary to use reinforcement and formwork but it require an extra protection to fire. Steel Brazilian code NBR 8800/86 - \"Projeto e execução de estruturas de aço de edifícios\" give specifications only for steel-concrete member under bending (composite beams). This code neglegence composite members under compression (composite columns). LRFD-AISC/86 - \"Load and resistance factor design\", Eurocode 4, BS 5400 give specifications about steel-concrete composite columns under compression and bending combined to concrete encased composite columns and steel tubes filled with concret. Codes requirements, constructional aspects and fire behaviour of composite columns are presented and discussed.

Os pilares mistos são elementos estruturais compostos por um perfil metálico e concreto trabalhando em conjunto. Entre estes destaca-se o pilar parcialmente revestido que apresenta vantagens como a possibilidade de pré-fabricação, redução no uso de formas e eficiência estrutural, porém seu processo executivo envolve uma trabalhosa tarefa que é a ancoragem das armaduras ao perfil metálico. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo estudar o comportamento estrutural de pilares mistos parcialmente revestidos submetidos a compressão simples e flexo-compressão e avaliar a possibilidade de substituição da armadura convencional por alternativas que possibilitem uma execução mais simples. Para isto foi desenvolvido um programa experimental envolvendo 23 exemplares de pilares mistos fabricados com o perfil W 150 x 22,5 e três configurações de armadura: armadura convencional, telas de aço soldadas entre as mesas do perfil e concreto com adição de fibras. Além disso, foram realizadas simulações numéricas e um estudo paramétrico utilizando o pacote computacional FX + DIANA a fim de extrapolar os resultados experimentais. Observou-se que o comportamento estrutural de pilares submetidos a forças excêntricas depende do eixo de flexão, de modo que a ruptura ocorre de modo mais gradual quando o pilar é submetido a flexão em torno do eixo de maior inércia. Além disso, respostas similares foram obtidas para as três configurações de armadura avaliadas, sendo o valor de força máxima obtido para os exemplares com concreto com fibras ligeiramente inferior aos demais. A substituição da armadura convencional por telas de aço ou concreto com fibras de aço não altera significativamente os valores de força máxima nem o comportamento pós-pico, mostrando a viabilidade da solução proposta. / Composite columns are structural elements made with steel profiles and concrete working together. Among these, there is the partially encased composite columns that presents advantages, such as, the possibility of pre-fabrication, reduction in the use of formwork and structural efficiency, but its fabrication process involves a laborious task that is the anchoring of the reinforcements to the steel profiles. In this context, the present work has the objective of studying the structural behavior of partially encased composite columns subjected to axial compression and eccentric compression and to evaluate the possibility of replacing conventional reinforcement with alternatives that allow a simpler execution. For this, an experimental program was developed involving 23 specimens of composite columns made with W 150 x 22.5 shape and three reinforcement configurations: welded steel mesh and fiber-added concrete. In addition, numerical simulations and a parametric study were performed using the FX + DIANA computational package in order to extrapolate the experimental results. The results show the structural behavior of columns subjected to eccentric forces depends on the axis of flexure, so that the rupture occurs more gradually when subjected to bending about the major inertia axis. In addition, similar responses were obtained for the three reinforcement configurations evaluated, and the peak load obtained for the specimens with fiber concrete was slightly lower than the others. Therefore, it can be observed that the replacement of conventional reinforcement by steel meshes or fiber concrete does not significantly alter the peak load or post-peak behavior, showing potential to be considered as a new alternative.

As vigas mistas de madeira e concreto são formadas pela união de vigas de madeira a lajes de concreto armado por meio de conectores de cisalhamento. Quando os pisos mistos de madeira e concreto são comparados aos pisos construídos unicamente em madeira ou àqueles confeccionados somente em concreto armado é possível destacar algumas vantagens, incluindo o bom desempenho em situações de incêndio. Os elementos estruturais quando submetidos a ações térmicas sofrem redução de resistência e rigidez, sendo, desta forma, necessário conhecer as modificações sofridas por cada um de seus componentes, que para o caso estudado são: a madeira, o concreto e os conectores de cisalhamento. Desta forma, foi elaborada uma estratégia de modelagem numérica para o estudo de vigas mistas de madeira e concreto em situação de incêndio, utilizando o programa computacional ABAQUS, o qual é baseado no método dos elementos finitos. Em uma primeira etapa da pesquisa foram realizadas modelagens numéricas de vigas de madeira e mistas de madeira e concreto em temperatura ambiente, encontrando-se boa correlação entre as curvas força versus deslocamento no meio do vão obtida numericamente e por meio de ensaios disponíveis na literatura. Em seguida procedeu-se a calibração das propriedades térmicas e mecânicas da madeira brasileira, alcançando-se resultados numéricos próximos aos experimentais, seja em relação às temperaturas do elemento analisado seja em relação à curva de deslocamento vertical em função do tempo de incêndio. Por fim, a estratégia de modelagem termoestrutural desenvolvida para a viga mista de madeira e concreto forneceu curva de deslocamento vertical em função do tempo de incêndio semelhante à curva obtida por meio de modelo analítico disponível na literatura. Por meio do modelo elaborado foi possível observar que a elevação do nível de carregamento reduz o tempo de resistência do elemento estrutural e que a proteção térmica do concreto é essencial para aumentar o tempo até a ruptura da viga. / Timber-concrete composite beams are formed by the union of timber beams to reinforced concrete slabs through of shear connectors. When timber-concrete composite floors are compared to timber floors or reinforced concrete floors it is possible to highlight some advantages, including good performance in fire situations. When subjected to thermal actions, structural elements suffer strength and stiffness reductions, being, therefore, necessary to know the modifications suffered by each of its components, which for the case studied are: timber, concrete and shear connectors. Thus, it is developed a numerical modeling strategy using the computational program ABAQUS, which is based on the finite element method, for the study of timber-concrete composite beams in fire situation. In the first stage of the research it was carried out a numerical modeling of timber beam and timber-concrete composite beam at room temperature, finding good correlation between the force versus displacement curves in the middle of the span obtained numerically and through tests available in the literature. Then, it was carried out the calibration of the thermal and mechanical properties of the Brazilian wood, reaching numerical results close to the experimental ones, either in relation to the temperatures of the analyzed element or in relation to the vertical displacement curve as a function of the fire time. Finally, the thermo-structural modeling strategy developed for the timber-concrete composite beam provided a vertical displacement curve as a function of the fire time similar to the curve obtained through an analytical model available in the literature. Through of the elaborated model it was possible to observe that the load level increase reduces the resistance fire time of the structural element and that the thermal protection of the concrete is essential to increase the rupture time of the beam.

O pilar misto parcialmente revestido é fruto da associação de um perfil metálico e concreto trabalhando em conjunto. Nestes pilares o perfil metálico, normalmente perfil I ou H, não é totalmente envolvido por concreto, sendo apenas a região entre as mesas preenchida. No Brasil, a utilização de pilares mistos parcialmente revestidos é ainda incipiente. Contudo a introdução do dimensionamento de elementos mistos na ABNT NBR 8800:2008 e as vantagens construtivas inerentes aos elementos mistos tem viabilizado a utilização destes elementos em obras pelo país afora, especialmente naquelas de grande porte. Neste contexto, o objetivo principal do trabalho é analisar o comportamento estrutural destes pilares e avaliar a possibilidade de substituição das armaduras tradicionais compostas por vergalhões por alternativas como telas de aço soldadas ou adição de fibras de aço ao concreto (taxa de 1,5% de fibras de 25 mm de comprimento). Para isto, foram feitos ensaios experimentais de cinco modelos físicos de pilares mistos parcialmente revestidos solicitados por compressão centrada e de um modelo solicitado por compressão excêntrica. Os resultados demonstraram-se promissores no que tange à substituição da armadura, mesmo para a situação com excentricidade na força aplicada. Em complemento, foi desenvolvida uma simulação numérica dos modelos físicos ensaiados utilizando o pacote computacional DIANA®, fundamentado no método dos elementos finitos, com o pré e pós-processador FX+. Apesar da hipótese simplificadora de aderência perfeita entre o aço e o concreto, o modelo numérico representou adequadamente o comportamento dos pilares mistos. / Partially encased composite columns are the result of the association of a steel profile and concrete filling working together. The most commonly used steel profiles have I or H cross sections not completely covered by concrete, with filling only in the region between flanges. In Brazil, the use of partially encased composite columns is still incipient. However, the introduction of design procedures for these columns in Brazilian Code ABNT - NBR 8800:2008 and also their inherent constructive advantages have enabled the use of these elements in buildings across the country, especially for large constructions. In this context, the main objective of this work is to analyze the structural behavior of these columns and evaluate the possibility of replacing the traditional reinforcement using steel rebar for alternatives such as welded steel meshes or steel fibers added to the concrete (rate of 1.5% and 25 mm long). To achieve these goals, experimental tests on five models of partially encased composite columns submitted to axial loading and one model subjected to eccentric loading were performed. The results proved to be promising in terms of replacing the traditional reinforcement, even for the situation with eccentricity of the applied force. In addition, a numerical modeling of the studied columns was developed, using finite element based software DIANA® with FX +. Despite simplifying assumptions of perfect bond between steel and concrete, the numerical model adequately represented the behavior of the columns.