O presente estudo investigou comportamentos simbólicos nos portadores de Síndrome de Apert por meio do paradigma da equivalência de estímulos, uma vez que este pode fornecer subsídios para a compreensão do comportamento humano complexo, tais como o comportamento simbólico e a linguagem. Foram propostos três experimentos cujos participantes, com idades entre 16 e 21 anos, foram submetidos aos Experimentos 1 e 2 (P1, P2 e P3) e submetidos ao Experimento 3 (P4 e P5). No Experimento 1, o objetivo foi verificar a formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes após o treino de relações condicionais, por meio de uma tarefa de matching to sample (MTS) com atraso de 0 s e três estímulos de comparação. Após o participante atingir um percentual de acerto de 94% no bloco, foram conduzidos testes de equivalência (CA), simetria (BA e CB) e transitividade (AC). De maneira geral, houve falha nos testes, com relativa preservação do teste de simetria. No Experimento 2, os participantes foram expostos à tarefa de MTS com atraso de 0 s e três estímulos de comparação, mas estes e o estímulo modelo apresentavam-se inicialmente cobertos, tornando-se visíveis somente após a emissão de respostas de observação (ROs). Foram introduzidas ROs na tarefa de MTS, com o objetivo de identificar que tipos de controle (seleção ou rejeição) poderiam estar em operação na formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes. Nos testes, o participante P3 formou classes de equivalência, contudo, os participantes P1 e P2 continuaram a apresentar falha na formação de equivalência, com preservação do teste de simetria. No Experimento 3, foram apresentadas variações metodológicas com o objetivo de favorecer o estabelecimento de um ou de outro tipo de controle (seleção ou rejeição), durante o treino das relações condicionais e verificar os efeitos destas variações no desempenho obtido nos testes. O participante P4 foi submetido primeiramente à situação na qual a terceira RO produzia o estímulo correto em 80% das tentativas (80%/3ª S+). Posteriormente 9 à realização das tarefas sob esta condição, foi submetido à situação na qual a primeira RO produzia o estímulo correto em 80% das tentativas (80%/1ª S+). O participante P5 foi exposto à ordem inversa: primeiramente à situação 80%/1ª S+ e posteriormente à situação 80%/3ª S+. Nos testes, em ambas as situações, o participante P4 foi capaz de aprender as relações de equivalência propostas pelo experimentador. Diferentemente, o responder do participante P5 não se apresentou sob controle discriminativo das contingências programadas pelo experimentador. De um modo geral, os resultados obtidos pelo presente estudo acrescidos das análises do teste PEABODY, sugerem que as dificuldades para a formação de classes de equivalência em participantes com baixo funcionamento lingüístico podem decorrer, em grande parte, de preparação e adaptação insuficiente de procedimentos para esse tipo de população / The present study investigated the symbolic behaviors of patients with Apert Syndrome through the paradigm of stimulus equivalence, since it may provide a basis for understanding complex human behavior, such as symbolic behavior and language. It had been proposed three experiments which participants, aged between 16 and 21 years, were submitted to Experiments 1 and 2 (P1, P2 and P3) and to Experiment 3 (P4 e P5). In Experiment 1, the objective was to assess the formation of classes of equivalent stimuli after training of conditional relations, through a task of matching to sample (MTS) and delay of 0s and three comparison stimuli. After the participant reaches a 94% criterion for accuracy in the block, tests were conducted for equivalence (CA), symmetry (BA and CB) and transitivity (AC). In general, the participants failed the tests, with relative preservation of the symmetry test. In Experiment 2, the participants were exposed to the task of MTS with delay of 0s and three comparison stimuli, but these and the sample stimulus were initially covered, becoming visible only after the observation responses (OR´s) issuance. ORs were introduced in the MTS task, with the objective to assess what kind of different controls (selection and rejection) could be involved in the formation of classes of equivalent stimuli. In tests, participant P3 showed the formation of classes of equivalent stimuli; however, participants P1 and P2 had failed to form equivalence, preserving the symmetry test. In Experiment 3 were presented methodological variations with the objective of encouraging the establishment of one or another type of control (selection or rejection) during the training of conditional relations and verify the effects of these variations in performance obtained in tests. Participant P4 was, at first, subjected to the situation which the third OR produced the correct stimulus in 80% of attempts (80% / 3rd S +). After the tasks under this condition were performed, P4 underwent a situation which the first OR produced the correct stimulus in 80% of attempts (80% / 1st S +). The participant P5 was exposed to the reverse order: first of all to the situation 80% / 1st S + and subsequently to the situation 80% / 3rd S +. In the tests, in both situations, the participant P4 was able to learn the equivalence 11 relations proposed by the experimenter. In contrast, the response of the participant P5 was not under discriminative control of the contingencies programmed by the experimenter. In general, the results obtained by this study plus the analysis of the PEABODY data suggests that difficulties in the formation of equivalence classes in participants with low language functioning may be due, in large part from inadequate preparation and adjustment procedures for this type of population

Attempts to control various aspects of response requirements and sample viewing durations of sample stimuli show that an increase in both facilitates acquisition of conditional discriminations. Despite these attempts, few empirical data exist that demonstrate the relative contributions of both response- and time-dependent schedules. In addition, viewing opportunities of sample stimuli are present outside of the researchers' control, allowing for 'unauthorized sample viewing.' This study employed a titrating delay matching-to-sample procedure to systematically control various aspects of response requirements and sample viewing durations to independently assess their relative contributions towards conditional discrimination performance. Four pigeons worked on a titrating delay matching-to-sample procedure in which the delay between sample offset and comparison onset continuously adjusted as a function of the accuracy of the pigeons' choices. Results show sample viewing durations contribute most toward conditional discrimination performance. The data show 'unauthorized sample viewing' improved acquisition of conditional discriminations and should be a consideration in design of future research.

Despite the central importance of conditional discriminations to the derivation of equivalence relations, there is little research relating the dynamics of conditional discrimination learning to the derivation of equivalence relations. Prior research has shown that conditional discriminations with simple sample and comparison stimuli are acquired faster than conditional discriminations with complex sample and comparison stimuli. This study attempted to replicate these earlier results and extend them by attempting to relate conditional discrimination learning to equivalence relations. Each of four adult humans learned four, four-choice conditional discriminations (simple-simple, simple-complex, complex-simple, and complex-complex) and were tested to see if equivalence relations had developed. The results confirm earlier findings showing acquisition to be facilitated with simple stimuli and retarded with complex stimuli. There was no difference in outcomes on equivalence tests, however. The results are in implicit agreement with Sidman's theory of stimulus equivalence.

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Effective and efficient skill-acquisition procedures must be identified to support individualized behavioral programming for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To do this, practitioners and researchers may use assessment-based instruction. Prompts are a common teaching strategy to promote skill acquisition. The purpose of this applied study was to use assessment-based instruction to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency of within- and extra-stimulus prompts to teach conditional discriminations to two children with ASD. We identified stimulus prompts using a survey of popular children's games and conducted a tablet-based instruction readiness assessment. Stimulus prompts involved motion (within-stimulus) and pointing (extra-stimulus) to evoke correct responses in the presence of a discriminative stimulus. We used an adapted alternating treatments design with a no-treatment control condition to evaluate the effects of both prompt types across multiple sets of stimuli. Both stimulus prompt types were efficacious in facilitating skill acquisition for two of three participants. Little difference was observed in the time to mastery with either prompt. Neither stimulus prompt was efficacious for the third participant. Assessment results will be used to inform clinical programming to teach conditional discriminations to participants and contribute to research on designing and implementing assessments of skill-acquisition procedures.

Participants demonstrate the Stroop effect when, in naming the color in which a word appears, reaction times are longer when the color and word are incongruent (e.g., "yellow" printed in blue) compared to when they are congruent (e.g., "yellow" printed in yellow). The literature commonly refers to the difference in reaction times as a measure of the interference of word stimuli upon color stimuli, and is taken as support for the theory of automaticity. This study asks whether the Stroop effect can be analyzed as interactions within and across stimulus classes. Adult participants learned three 3-member classes (color, word, and pattern) in a serialized order of training. In the testing phase, participants were presented with compound stimuli formed from combinations of members within and across classes (e.g., word and color), and reaction times were recorded in similar fashion to the Stroop task. Results show that averaged participants' reaction times are faster to compound stimuli comprised of members within the same class, compared to compound stimuli formed with members from different classes. These group-level data are consistent with the Stroop literature in that congruent compounds produce faster reaction times relative to incongruent compounds. However, individual participant data do not consistently reflect the Stroop effect. Further considerations for future research in this area are discussed.

A conditional discrimination training procedure was used to establish stimulus-stimulus relations that might lead to the emergence of relations that define playing by ear. The participants were four college students. Overall, the results varied across participants. Of the 3 participants who received Training 1 (hear-note-name/select-key), all 3 participants acquired that relation. Out of those 3 participants, 2 participants showed emergence of the hear-see-key-pressed/say-note-name relation after Training 1. Of the 3 participants who received Training 2, (hear-note-name/select-tone), 2 participants acquired that relation for at least one set. Out of those 3 participants, 1 participant showed emergence of the hear-tone/say-note-name relation. One out of three participants was successful in correctly playing a sequence of four notes by ear at the end of the study. One participant did not complete the study due to availability conflicts. The overall results can suggest that the relations used in this study should be taken into account when training someone to play by ear. However, the current data do not allow us to conclude whether it is necessary to teach or test all of these relations in order to teach playing by ear.

Five humans were exposed to a matching to sample task in which the delay (range = 0 to 32 seconds) between sample stimulus offset and comparison onset was manipulated across conditions. Auditory stimuli (1” tone) and arbitrary symbols served as sample stimuli for three (S1, S2, S3) and two (S4 and S5) subjects, respectively. Uppercase English letters (S, M, and N) served as comparison stimuli for all subjects. Results show small but systematic effects of the retention interval on accuracy and latency to selection of comparison stimuli. The results fail to show a difference between subjects exposed to auditory and visual sample stimuli. Some reasons for the failure to note a difference are discussed.

A demonstração da formação de classes de equivalência é dificultada pela ausência de reforçamento durante os testes de relações emergentes que documentam suas propriedades, em particular quando se trata de sujeitos não-humanos e humanos com desenvolvimento atípico. O presente trabalho propõe uma alternativa metodológica para testar a formação de classes de equivalência sob condições de reforçamento diferencial. O primeiro estudo testou simetria e transitividade em humanos adultos verbalmente competentes com o propósito de avaliar o procedimento em condições favoráveis à demonstração da formação de classes de equivalência. O segundo estudo aplicou o procedimento na avaliação de simetria em pombos. Em termos gerais, os sujeitos foram treinados em uma linha de base de relações condicionais antes de serem submetidos a testes reforçados de simetria ou transitividade. Durante o teste de simetria, dois conjuntos de relações condicionais foram adicionalmente reforçados: um constituído das contrapartes simétricas de relações da linha de base, o outro de relações inéditas não simétricas formadas pela recombinação de estímulos da linha de base. Desempenhos mais precisos nas relações simétricas em comparação às relações inéditas sugeririam um controle condicional por simetria. A mesma estratégia foi empregada para avaliar transitividade. Em relação aos resultados, os participantes humanos responderam com acurácia superior nas relações simétricas e transitivas do que nas relações inéditas no transcorrer de cada teste. Esses achados demonstram a efetividade do procedimento em avaliar a emergência de relações que definem equivalência de estímulos. Os pombos, por sua vez, desempenharam ao nível do acaso tanto nas relações simétricas quanto nas relações inéditas em um primeiro teste envolvendo a metade dos estímulos da linha de base. Entretanto, depois que essas relações foram treinadas até alta acurácia, todos os sujeitos responderam com precisão superior nas relações simétricas durante um segundo teste envolvendo os estímulos restantes da linha de base. Esses resultados contrastam a maioria dos resultados de estudos anteriores com sujeitos não-verbais e sugerem que formação de classes de equivalência pode ser verificada em tais populações sob condições adequadas de treino e teste. / The lack of reinforcement in tests of emergent relations interferes with the demonstration of equivalence-class formation in nonhuman animals and humans with developmental disabilities. The present work proposes an alternative methodology to test equivalence-class formation under differential reinforcement conditions. The first study assessed symmetry and transitivity in verbally-able human adults in order to evaluate the proposed procedure. In the second study, such a procedure was applied to assess symmetry in pigeons. After subjects have been trained on the baseline conditional relations they were given either a symmetry or a transitivity reinforced test. During the symmetry test, two sets of conditional relations were additionally reinforced: symmetrical versions of the baseline relations and novel relations, formed by recombining stimuli from the baseline. Evidence for symmetry would be indicated by higher accuracies on the symmetrical than on the novel relations. Similar strategy was used to test transitivity. The results showed that human participants performed with higher levels of accuracy on the symmetrical and transitive relations than on the novel relations throughout each test. These founds indicate the efficacy of the procedure to test emergent relations that define stimulus equivalence. Pigeons, in turn, performed at chance-level in both symmetrical and novel relations in the first test involving half of the baseline stimuli. Nevertheless, after such relations have been trained to a high accuracy, all the pigeons matched at higher levels of accuracy on the symmetrical relations in the second test involving the remaining baseline stimuli. This result contrasts with the lack of symmetry reported in most of previous studies with nonverbal subjects and indicates that symmetry can emerge in such a population under adequate conditions of training and testing.

O Estudo 1 deste trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar, em participantes típicos, possíveis controles de estímulos envolvidos no processo de aquisição do controle por unidades verbais mínimas durante os treinos de discriminação condicional dos estímulos compostos (palavras), e durante os testes que avaliavam deste repertório. O objetivo do Estudo 2 foi realizar uma replicação sistemática dos procedimentos metodológicos e de análise empregados no Estudo 1 com uma participante com autismo e, propor procedimentos individualizados de correção de controle restrito de estímulos. No Estudo 1 foram analisados dados anteriormente coletados, por meio de um programa de ensino de leitura generalizada, de três participantes e, também, foi proposta uma categorização dos pares de estímulos relacionados às respostas dos participantes e os estímulos modelo apresentados, em cada tentativa de erro, em termos da presença de diferenças críticas ou múltiplas nos elementos dos estímulos compostos. No Estudo 2 foi aplicado o programa para a emergência de controles por unidades verbais mínimas e também foi realizada a análise de erros do Estudo 1 que, em parte, auxiliou na introdução de procedimentos específicos e individualizados para a correção de padrões de controle restrito de estímulos. Os resultados do Estudo 1 e 2 apontaram que, de forma geral, os quatro participantes demonstraram aquisição do controle por unidades verbais mínimas, mas foi observada ocorrência de variabilidade no que se refere à predominância de erros envolvendo diferenças críticas ou múltiplas e no que se refere à necessidade de introdução de procedimentos específicos e individualizados para maximizar o repertório de aquisição esperado ou corrigir controles restritos de estímulos. / Study 1 of this work aimed to evaluate, in children with typical development, possible controls of stimuli involved in the process of acquisition of control by minimal verbal units. Investigation took place during the training sessions of conditional discrimination of compound stimuli (written words), and during the tests that evaluated the emergence of control by minimal verbal units. The purpose of Study 2 was threefold. Firstly, to carry out a systematic replication of the procedures employed in Study 1 with a participant with autism. Secondly, to widen the scope of analysis of Study1. And thirdly, to propose procedures for correction of individual control to restricted stimuli. In Study 1, previously-collected data were analyzed through a program of recombinative reading with three participants. The pairs of stimuli related to the responses of participants and the stimuli model presented in each trial error were categorized. The results were analyzed to see critical and multiple differences of compound stimuli. In Study 2, not only were the same program and categorization applied, but specific and individualized procedures to correct patterns of restricted control of stimuli were introduced. The results of Study 1 and 2 showed that, in general, the four participants demonstrated acquisition of control by minimal verbal units. However, occurrence of variability regarding the prevalence of errors involving multiple or critical differences was observed. There was also variability with regards to the need to introduce specific and individualized procedures to maximize the expected repertoire or correct restricted stimuli control.