Temporal context memory is memory for the timing of events. People can make temporal judgments based on strategies such as assessing the relative familiarity of events or inferring temporal order from the semantic associations among events. The purpose of present study is to investigate the brain regions that support temporal context retrieval in the absence of such non-temporal strategies (i.e. pure temporal context memory). We used three word familiar phrases (triplets) as stimuli. In study phase, three words were presented quickly one after another in either familiar or scrambled order. Participants were instructed to read aloud each word and try to remember the order of the words. Then they were tested on their memory for the order of the words in each triplet. We propose that memory for the scrambled triplets reflects primarily temporal retrieval for two reasons. First, participants were prevented from using semantic strategies during encoding. Second, the relative familiarity of the words in each triplet was similar and not diagnostic of the order of the words during encoding. Neuroimaging results indicate that temporal context retrieval, memory for the order of words in scrambled triplets, was associated with the hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, retrosplenial cortex, and posterior cingulate, which are consistent with the retrieval of non-temporal context in episodic memory. The results also suggest that temporal context retrieval could rely on familiarity, which was demonstrated by the higher accuracy and greater activation of PRc in familiar phrases and scrambled triplets presented in studied order in the test phase. / Master of Science

The aim of this thesis is to examine the underlying cognitive and neural processes at play during retrieval of temporal and contextual source information. This was assessed across three experimental chapters. In the first experimental chapter, Chapter 2, the neural loci of context associations were assessed. Rats trained on an odour-context association task were given lesions to either the Lateral Entorhinal Cortex (LEC) or sham lesions. After surgery, performance on the odour-context task was assessed. It was hypothesised that memory for previously learned odour-context associations would be impaired following LEC lesions but not sham lesions. The results supported this hypothesis, demonstrating impaired memory for the previously learned odour-context associations in the LEC lesion group compared to the Sham lesion. In Chapter 3, the underlying retrieval processes used to retrieve time and context in human memory was assessed across three experiments. It was hypothesised that time would be remembered accurately using both recollection and familiarity, while correct context memory should rely on recollection alone. Two out of the three experiments supported this hypothesis, demonstrating that temporal information can be retrieved using familiarity in certain instances. The final experimental Chapter 4 used fMRI to extend Chapter 3 and examine whether neural activity would be greater in regions associated with recollection during memory for context, while activity in familiarity-related regions would be higher during memory for time. Results revealed no support for these predictions with no regions linked to recollection showing greater context-related activity, and no regions previously linked to familiarity exhibiting increased activation as temporal information was retrieved. The results are discussed in relation to established recollection and familiarity frameworks and previous work examining the neural substrates supporting memory for time and context.

Arquiteturas reconfiguráveis têm se demonstrado uma potencial solução para lidar com a crescente complexidade encontrada em sistemas embarcados. Para se alcançar ganhos em desempenho, é preciso uma grande redundância das unidades funcionais, acarretando o aumento da área ocupada pelas unidades funcionais. Uma das propostas deste trabalho será de explorar o espaço de projeto, visando à redução da área e da energia. Para isto, serão apresentadas duas técnicas de virtualização de hardware, sendo as mesmas semelhantes a um pipeline de estágios reconfiguráveis. Ambas as técnicas alcançaram mais de 94% de redução da área. Outro aspecto a ser explorado em uma arquitetura reconfigurável é o impacto em área e energia causado pela inserção da memória de contexto. Assim, este impacto será demonstrado neste trabalho e duas abordagens que modificam a memória de contexto serão propostas: a primeira abordagem baseia-se na exploração da largura ideal da porta da memória combinado com número de acessos, para que se minimize a energia consumida na busca dos bytes de configuração; a segunda abordagem possui um mecanismo de gerenciamento das configurações por meio de listas ligadas, que permite que as configurações sejam acessadas parcialmente. As duas abordagens apresentaram redução de energia de até 98%, podendo ser utilizadas em sistemas que apresentam tanto a reconfiguração parcial como a total. / Reconfigurable architectures have shown to be a potential solution to the problem of increasing complexity found in embedded systems. However, in order to achieve significant performance gains, large quantities of redundant functional units are generally necessary, with a corresponding increase in the area occupied by these units. This thesis explores the design space with the objective of reducing both area and energy consumption, and presents two hardware virtualization techniques, similar to reconfigurable pipeline stages, which achieve a reduction in area of more than 94%. The use of context memory in reconfigurable architectures has a significant impact in terms of area and energy, as is clearly demonstrated by initial experimental results. Two novel context memory architectures are presented: the first approach is being based on an exploration of the balance point between memory port width and number of accesses, in order to reduce the energy consumed during fetching of the configuration bytes; the second approach presents a configuration management mechanism using hardware linked lists, and that allows segmented access to configuration settings. Both approaches demonstrate energy reduction of up to 98% and can be adopted in both partial and atomic reconfiguration architectures.

Arquiteturas reconfiguráveis têm se demonstrado uma potencial solução para lidar com a crescente complexidade encontrada em sistemas embarcados. Para se alcançar ganhos em desempenho, é preciso uma grande redundância das unidades funcionais, acarretando o aumento da área ocupada pelas unidades funcionais. Uma das propostas deste trabalho será de explorar o espaço de projeto, visando à redução da área e da energia. Para isto, serão apresentadas duas técnicas de virtualização de hardware, sendo as mesmas semelhantes a um pipeline de estágios reconfiguráveis. Ambas as técnicas alcançaram mais de 94% de redução da área. Outro aspecto a ser explorado em uma arquitetura reconfigurável é o impacto em área e energia causado pela inserção da memória de contexto. Assim, este impacto será demonstrado neste trabalho e duas abordagens que modificam a memória de contexto serão propostas: a primeira abordagem baseia-se na exploração da largura ideal da porta da memória combinado com número de acessos, para que se minimize a energia consumida na busca dos bytes de configuração; a segunda abordagem possui um mecanismo de gerenciamento das configurações por meio de listas ligadas, que permite que as configurações sejam acessadas parcialmente. As duas abordagens apresentaram redução de energia de até 98%, podendo ser utilizadas em sistemas que apresentam tanto a reconfiguração parcial como a total. / Reconfigurable architectures have shown to be a potential solution to the problem of increasing complexity found in embedded systems. However, in order to achieve significant performance gains, large quantities of redundant functional units are generally necessary, with a corresponding increase in the area occupied by these units. This thesis explores the design space with the objective of reducing both area and energy consumption, and presents two hardware virtualization techniques, similar to reconfigurable pipeline stages, which achieve a reduction in area of more than 94%. The use of context memory in reconfigurable architectures has a significant impact in terms of area and energy, as is clearly demonstrated by initial experimental results. Two novel context memory architectures are presented: the first approach is being based on an exploration of the balance point between memory port width and number of accesses, in order to reduce the energy consumed during fetching of the configuration bytes; the second approach presents a configuration management mechanism using hardware linked lists, and that allows segmented access to configuration settings. Both approaches demonstrate energy reduction of up to 98% and can be adopted in both partial and atomic reconfiguration architectures.

Arquiteturas reconfiguráveis têm se demonstrado uma potencial solução para lidar com a crescente complexidade encontrada em sistemas embarcados. Para se alcançar ganhos em desempenho, é preciso uma grande redundância das unidades funcionais, acarretando o aumento da área ocupada pelas unidades funcionais. Uma das propostas deste trabalho será de explorar o espaço de projeto, visando à redução da área e da energia. Para isto, serão apresentadas duas técnicas de virtualização de hardware, sendo as mesmas semelhantes a um pipeline de estágios reconfiguráveis. Ambas as técnicas alcançaram mais de 94% de redução da área. Outro aspecto a ser explorado em uma arquitetura reconfigurável é o impacto em área e energia causado pela inserção da memória de contexto. Assim, este impacto será demonstrado neste trabalho e duas abordagens que modificam a memória de contexto serão propostas: a primeira abordagem baseia-se na exploração da largura ideal da porta da memória combinado com número de acessos, para que se minimize a energia consumida na busca dos bytes de configuração; a segunda abordagem possui um mecanismo de gerenciamento das configurações por meio de listas ligadas, que permite que as configurações sejam acessadas parcialmente. As duas abordagens apresentaram redução de energia de até 98%, podendo ser utilizadas em sistemas que apresentam tanto a reconfiguração parcial como a total. / Reconfigurable architectures have shown to be a potential solution to the problem of increasing complexity found in embedded systems. However, in order to achieve significant performance gains, large quantities of redundant functional units are generally necessary, with a corresponding increase in the area occupied by these units. This thesis explores the design space with the objective of reducing both area and energy consumption, and presents two hardware virtualization techniques, similar to reconfigurable pipeline stages, which achieve a reduction in area of more than 94%. The use of context memory in reconfigurable architectures has a significant impact in terms of area and energy, as is clearly demonstrated by initial experimental results. Two novel context memory architectures are presented: the first approach is being based on an exploration of the balance point between memory port width and number of accesses, in order to reduce the energy consumed during fetching of the configuration bytes; the second approach presents a configuration management mechanism using hardware linked lists, and that allows segmented access to configuration settings. Both approaches demonstrate energy reduction of up to 98% and can be adopted in both partial and atomic reconfiguration architectures.

There is evidence that a synaptic tagging and capture mechanism is involved in the creation of long-term memory during late-phase long-term potentiation (LTP). Events and contexts produce molecular tags on specific connections on the neuron cell body, which enable them to capture plasticity related proteins, PRPs created in the cell nucleus, if there is a strong event that induces the protein synthesis. This mechanism is believed to underlie behavioral tagging (BT) and infer that a molecular tag from a specific event can utilize PRPs from another event, with an effect on memory consolidation and long-term memory. We researched this through Pavlonian fear conditioning with contextual-fear, conditioned stimulus (CS) over two days, in two groups of healthy volunteers (n = 32, day 1 & n = 28, day 2). The result suggests that there is an effect on consolidation, that is, a novel navigation task on day 1 may be responsible for a strengthened recall of a fear memory that is learned one hour later. This suggests that BT effects can be produced in humans through an experimental procedure. Future research will have to test this further with more power to fully confirm if it corresponds to the truth.

Chez le rongeur, lorsque l’expression d’une peur conditionnée au contexte s’appuie sur un souvenir ancien, des réponses de peur importantes sont souvent rapportées lors de l’exposition à un contexte différent de celui dans lequel les chocs électriques ont été administrés. Cette généralisation des réponses de peur serait liée à une réorganisation concomitante des réseaux sous-tendant l’expression de la peur, en particulier à un « désengagement » de l’hippocampe dans le rappel des informations contextuelles. Cependant, d’autres études suggèrent que des modifications dans les traitements amenant à l’expression de comportements défensifs, liés à la peur ou l’anxiété, puissent également se mettre en place avec le temps suite à un conditionnement. Ainsi, une incubation des réponses de peur, correspondant à une augmentation globale des niveaux de peur avec le temps, pourrait contribuer à la généralisation de ces réponses. Nos travaux, par une approche d’imagerie de gènes précoces immédiats ainsi que d’évaluation comportementale, ont visé à démêler les mécanismes impliqués dans la généralisation de la peur conditionnée au contexte accompagnant sa consolidation à long terme. Nos résultats suggèrent que la généralisation soit moins liée à une altération du souvenir du contexte qu’à des modifications portant sur le traitement et / ou l’expression des émotions. La nature de ces dernières modifications semble dépendre du statut prédictif initial du contexte (en avant- ou en arrière-plan). De manière cohérente avec l’observation d’une absence de dégradation de la trace du contexte avec le temps, le rôle de l’hippocampe dans le rappel de l’information contextuelle nous est apparu maintenu au cours du temps. Les réorganisations observées dans les réseaux sous-tendant l’expression des réponses de peur concerneraient plutôt des modifications liées au traitement associatif et / ou émotionnel des informations contextuelles. Dans leur ensemble, nos résultats soulèvent la nécessaire prise en compte du haut degré de complexité des traitements amenant à l’expression d’une peur conditionnée, pour qui souhaite évaluer la qualité de la représentation contextuelle sur la base de réponses de peur discriminantes. / At remote delays following contextual fear conditioning in rodents, generalization of fear responses is usually described, as fear responses are elicited by exposure to a context different from the one in which footshocks were delivered. This generalization has been proposed to rely on the degradation and/or transformation of the memory trace due to systemic consolidation. The latter corresponds to the time-dependent reorganization of structures implicated in contextual fear expression, from networks involving the hippocampus to mainly cortical networks. However, other studies suggest that changes in defensive behaviors’ expression tied to fear and anxiety might take place in the time period following a fear conditioning experience. Indeed, an incubation of fear responses, that is an overall increase in fear responses following contextual fear conditioning, has repeatedly been reported. Such changes in the processing of emotionally relevant information might represent an alternative explanation of a time-dependent generalization of fear responses. Using immediate early genes imaging and behavioral assessment, our studies aimed at disentangling the processes supporting fear generalization over time. Our results suggest that under some circumstances, changes in the fear responses’ specificity might less be due to the dynamics of a memory system supporting the context representation than to alterations attributable to emotional information processing and/or expression. They point out dissociations in the latter changes between animals conditioned to a foreground or a background context. Consistent with our observation of a preserved detailed context memory trace, they also suggest that changes in the brain networks supporting the expression of a remotely acquired contextual fear might not reflect a time-dependent hippocampal-independency. Rather, the observed reorganization of neuronal networks might sustain changes in the associative and / or emotional information processing evoked by context exposure. Altogether, our results point out the need to take account of the high complexity of information processing leading to the onset of fear responses, when trying to infer the quality of a contextual representation on the basis of fear discrimination between contexts.