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The experiment was designed to study the effect of conditionality on the growth and decline of expectancy scores during acquisition and extinction. The results revealed that conditionality affects the growth of expectation during acquisition for both direct and vicarious tasks but has no effect on variation scores. Percentage of reinforcement is also effective, the expectancy scores for the 100% reward groups rising to a higher level in acquisition and dropping off more rapidly in extinction than for the 50% reward groups. Problems arising from the differential effect of conditionality on expectancy scores and variation indices, and from differential expectancy levels at the end of acquisition were discussed. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

The experiment was designed to study the effect of conditionality on the growth and decline of expectancy scores during acquisition and extinction The results revealed that conditionality affects the growth of expectation during acquisition for both direct and vicarious tasks but has no effect on variation scores, Percentage of reinforcement is also effective, the expectancy scores for the 100% reward groups rising to a higher level in acquisition and dropping off more rapidly in extinction than for the 50% reward groups, Problems arising from the differential effect of conditionality on expectancy scores and variation indices, and from differential expectancy levels at the end of acquisition were discussed, / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

Sammanfattning Kandidatuppsats i företagsekonomi inom ekonomistyrning.             Ekonomihögskolan Linneuniversitetet Vårterminen 2012.   Författare:                 Claes Lindberg Handledare:               Jan Alpenberg Titel:                           Ekonomistyrning i småföretag                        Syfte:                          Syftet med denna studie är: Att bidra till ökad förståelse för användningen av ekonomistyrsystemen i ett tillverkande småföretag i Israel och jämföra med dito i Sverige. Att beskriva användandet av ekonomistyrsystemen samt analysera olikheter och likheter emellan dem.                                                                                                  Metod:                        Jag har i den här undersökningen valt att göra en fallstudie med två företag, ett israeliskt och ett svenskt. Den metod som jag använt definierar jag som en fallstudieteknik med en kvalitativ metod som enligt Yins dimensioner faller under multipel fallstudie med ett holistiskt tillvägagångssätt. Själva analysen har utförts med hjälp av ”contingency theory”.   Slutsats:                      I studien har framkommit att det är stor skillnad i hur de två företagen har använt sina ekonomistyrsystem. Det är stor skillnad i hur man ser på ekonomistyrsystemen och vilket mervärde de tillför organisationen. Det svenska företaget har ett ekonomistyrningssystem som är väldigt traditionellt uppbyggt och där det anses viktigt för att leda företaget på effektivt sätt. Dessa skillnader har troligtvis uppkommit både på grund av skillnader i omgivningen men också av skillnader i företagens affärsidé, koncept och också pga. skillnader i VD/ägares personlighet. Vi kan dock konstatera att båda dessa företag har verkat under längre tid med god lönsamhet trots sina olika sätt att använda de traditionella ekonomistyrsystemen. / Abstract Title                            Management Control Systems in Small Businesses Author                        Claes Lindberg Supervisor                  Jan Alpenberg Course                        Bachelor Thesis in Business Administration 15 ECts Purpose                      The purpose of the thesis is to: Add understanding to the use of management control systems in a small producing business in Israel and compare it to a similar business in Sweden. Describe the use of the management control systems and analyze the differences and differences between them.    Methodology              The methodology used in this thesis is a qualitative multiple case study                                          that according to Yins dimensions would be characterized as a holistic case study. The relevant theory for analyzing the result is contingency theory.          Conclusions                The study has found that there is a big difference in how the two companies are using their management control systems and a big difference in how management see the added value to the organization from these control systems.                                     The Swedish company has a control system that is very traditional in the type of segment where they operate and they consider the system as an important tool to lead the company in the right direction. The Israeli company on the other hand has a system that gives a more general picture and is less complicated and exact compared to the Swedish one. These differences are probably due to differences in the surroundings but also in business concept, customer demands and also difference in character and leader style of company owners. We can conclude that both these companies have been successful for 25 plus years with a profit level way above their competitors despite their different ways of using the traditional management control systems.

Previous research has shown that causal attributions can be made from patterns of covariation (Cheng, 1997). While the study of how humans learn contingencies goes back decades (e.g., Ward & Jenkins, 1965), cue interaction effects, involving covariations with two or more cues, have taken on particular importance (e.g., Shanks, 1985), due to their rich potential for theoretical insights. One such effect is causal discounting (Goedert & Spellman, 2005): People believe a cue is less contingent if they learned about it in the presence of a more contingent cue. Using a new method for investigating covariation detection, the steamed-trial technique (Allen et al., 2008), Art Markman, Kelly Goedert and I (Laux et al., 2010) have established that differences in bias underlie causal discounting. We argued that this implies discounting is an effect of a process employed to make causal judgments after learning has occurred. Analyses of how different theories account for discounting, especially simulations of associative models, establishes that this is not necessarily correct; several learning models can reproduce our data. However, model and data explorations show that the key feature of those data is that they track relative, not absolute, magnitudes. My dissertation extends this work establishing the plausibility of a comparative judgment process as the locus of causal discounting. I replicate the finding that responding tracks relative magnitudes. By conducting experiments that parametrically manipulate the contingency of the alternative cue (and thereby the relative contingency of the cues), I show that causal discounting is due to responding to contingencies as a linear function of their relative magnitude. I further verify that discounting manifests identically in response to contingencies presented via summary tables. Because summary tables do not afford the series of experiences necessary to build an association, this enhances the credibility of the theory that discounting is due to a shared process employed subsequent to learning—namely, a judgment process. These investigations reveal that discounting is not a cue interaction effect at all, but rather is a manifestation of a fundamental aspect of the systems that subserve covariation detection. / text

Denna uppsats menar att den svenska bankbranschen genomgår ett miljöskifte. I enighet med Contingency Theory finns då ett behov av anpassning för de bankerna som äntrar den nya miljön. Den svenska storbanken Nordea används i denna studie som ett exempel på en bank i den nya miljön. Genom att intervjua sex medarbetare och sex kunder till banken antas ett dubbelt perspektiv för att diskutera hur Nordeas organisationstyp och strategi förhåller sig till den nya miljön. Kundintervjuerna har påvisat att personliga relationer värderas högt. Samtidigt visar medarbetarintervjuerna och en analys av Nordeas arbetssätt att den antagna organisationstypen och strategi ser ut att minska på de personliga relationerna. Diskussionen hävdar att en Flexibel, Organisk och Kundorienterad strategi som skapar Relational Benefits passar i den nya miljön; en strategi Nordea endast delvis antagit. Slutsatsen uppmärksammar en risk i att inte tillvara ta kundernas önskan om en personlig bankrelation i den nya digitala miljön.

by Chun-nam Lau. / Thesis (M.Ph.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1988. / Bibliography: leaves 85-89.

by Vincent Hung Hin Yan. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 76-77). / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter §1.1 --- Classical approaches and their limitations --- p.1 / Chapter §1.2 --- New approach --- p.3 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Two-dimensional Ordinal Square Tables --- p.5 / Chapter §2.1 --- Model --- p.5 / Chapter §2.2 --- Maximum likelihood estimator --- p.7 / Chapter §2.3 --- Optimization procedure --- p.8 / Chapter §2.4 --- Useful hypotheses --- p.9 / Chapter §2.5 --- Simulation study --- p.11 / Chapter §2.6 --- A real example --- p.18 / Chapter §2.7 --- Comparison of new and classical approaches --- p.22 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Multi-dimensional Ordinal Tables --- p.25 / Chapter §3.1 --- Partition maximum likelihood estimator --- p.26 / Chapter §3.2 --- Optimization procedure --- p.28 / Chapter §3.3 --- Useful hypotheses --- p.37 / Chapter §3.4 --- Simulation study --- p.39 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Conclusion --- p.45 / Tables --- p.48 / Appendix --- p.74 / References --- p.77

by Kwok-leung Ho. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1994. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 60-63). / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Model --- p.7 / Chapter 2.1 --- Basic Beliefs on the vaguely classified variable --- p.7 / Chapter 2.2 --- Properties of the contingency table --- p.13 / Chapter 2.3 --- Mathematical model --- p.21 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Simulation --- p.32 / Chapter 3.1 --- Likelihood function for the model and the simulation method --- p.32 / Chapter 3.2 --- Simulation result --- p.48 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Discussion --- p.57 / Reference --- p.60

Shum Chun-Yin. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 63-64). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgement --- p.iv / Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 2 --- Ordinal Contingency Table --- p.5 / Chapter 2.1 --- Model --- p.5 / Chapter 2.2 --- The Maximum Likelihood Method --- p.7 / Chapter 2.3 --- Limitation of the Maximum Likelihood Estimation in Large Sample --- p.8 / Chapter 2.4 --- The Partition Maximum Likelihood Approach --- p.9 / Chapter 3 --- Modification of the Partition Maximum Likelihood Approach --- p.12 / Chapter 3.1 --- The Modified Partition Maximum Likelihood Approach --- p.12 / Chapter 3.2 --- Mx Implementation --- p.14 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Maximum Likelihood Procedure --- p.14 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Modified PML Procedure --- p.15 / Chapter 3.3 --- Examples --- p.16 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Example 1 : Attitudes of Morality and Equality --- p.16 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Example 2 : A Panel Model for Political Efficacy --- p.17 / Chapter 3.4 --- Limitation of the Modified PML Approach --- p.19 / Chapter 3.5 --- Simulation Study for the Modified PML Approach --- p.20 / Chapter 4 --- Generalization to Structural Equation Model --- p.22 / Chapter 4.1 --- Model --- p.23 / Chapter 4.2 --- Procedure --- p.24 / Chapter 4.3 --- Examples --- p.26 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Example 1 : Attitudes of Morality and Equality --- p.26 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Example 2 : A Panel Model for Political Efficacy --- p.28 / Chapter 5 --- Generalization to Stochastic Constraints on Thresholds --- p.31 / Chapter 5.1 --- Model --- p.32 / Chapter 5.2 --- Bayesian Analysis of the Model --- p.33 / Chapter 5.3 --- Examples --- p.35 / Chapter 5.3.1 --- Example 1 : Attitudes of Morality and Equality --- p.35 / Chapter 5.3.2 --- Example 2 : A Panel Model for Political Efficacy --- p.36 / Chapter 6 --- Conclusion and Discussion --- p.38 / Chapter A --- Mx Script of the ML Estimation - for Example 1 --- p.40 / Chapter B --- Mx Script of the Modified PML Estimation - for Example 1 --- p.42 / Chapter C --- Mx Script of the Modified PML Estimation - for Example 2 --- p.45 / Bibliography --- p.63