Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / Bibliography. Also available via the Internet.

Master of Science - Science / The transportation of aerosols and trace gas material from industrial activities and biomass burning in southern Africa has received widespread attention from scientists over the past decade. Dominant circulation patterns in the sub-region facilitate the southward transportation of sulphur pollutants from the pyromerturllugical processing of copper in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and products of biomass burning from countries in the sub-region in general. This research focuses on the contribution of industrial pollutants from the Zambian Copperbelt and products of biomass burning in the sub-region to total aerosol loading over South Africa. The seasonality of air transport over the region in general, and South Africa in particular, is determined from different transport fields and their frequency of occurrence. Data supplied by the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF) has been used to run trajectories for the summer, autumn, winter and spring seasons for southern Africa for the years 1990-1994. Forward trajectories have been calculated for the 850, 800, 750 and 700hPa geopotential heights, from Kitwe (12.9° S, 28.2° E, 1262m above mean sea level), at 2.5° resolution. The wall programme has been used as a tool for analysis. Trajectories show widespread recirculation over the subcontinent, resulting in a net transportation of sulphate aerosols from the Zambian Copperbelt. Biomass burning products are likely to join this plume, especially during the late winter and spring seasons. During the summer, air transport is mainly to the west, via Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo, off the eastern Atlantic towards southern America.

Ce travail aborde la question de la caractérisation environnementale des rejets minéro-métallurgiques. La partie théorique est consacrée dune part à une synthèse théorique et bibliographique des tests dévaluation environnementale des matériaux solides dorigine minière ; dautre part à linventaire et la description des sites de production et de décharge de ces rejets. En ce qui concerne lévaluation environnementale, laccent est mis sur le devenir des éléments(en) traces métalliques (ETM) considérés comme principaux polluants contenus dans ces matériaux. Létude expérimentale consiste en une caractérisation des échantillons prélevés sur quelques sites du Katanga suivie dune mise en oeuvre des tests de lixiviabilité et détude de la migration souterraine des polluants identifiés. La question de la radioactivité et de drainage minier acide y est également évoquée. Lanalyse chimique met en évidence trois catégories déléments en fonction de leurs teneurs : les éléments majeurs, mineurs et en traces. Les éléments : As, Cd, Co, Cu, Mn, Pb et Zn sont les principaux polluants identifiés. Le comportement environnemental de lAs et du Cd nest pas étudié par insuffisance de reproductibilité sur les résultats danalyse. La diffraction des rayons X montre que les phases majeures cristallisées sont essentiellement constituées des minéraux de la gangue. Elle montre également que les rejets de pyrométallurgie se caractérisent par la présence exclusive de phases amorphes pas ou très peu cristallisées, par conséquent non identifiables par ce moyen. La microscopie électronique à balayage montre que les rejets de pyrométallurgie sont constitués, pour la plupart, de grains arrondis ou allongés, non poreux, daspect vitreux avec un état de surface lisse. Bien que la mesure de la radioactivité montre, pour certains échantillons, de taux élevés par rapport au niveau ambiant, les valeurs obtenues ne permettent pas de classer les rejets dans la catégorie des rejets radioactifs. En ce qui concerne la lixiviabilité, les essais dextraction simple à pH neutre montrent que les rejets de pyrométallurgie sont très peu lixiviables (taux de lixiviation inférieur à 0,5%), les rejets de concentration sont relativement lixiviables (jusquà 3%) et le résidu dhydrométallurgie est très lixiviable (jusquà 30%). La faible lixiviabilité des rejets de pyrométallurgie, dans les conditions ordinaires (pH 7) sexplique principalement par le fait que les ETM y sont incorporés dans des phases vitreuses chimiquement très peu réactives. La Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), test règlementaire dune rigueur assez élevée, car simulant les pires conditions de mise en décharge avec les ordures ménagères, montre que les rejets de pyrométallurgie sont aussi lixiviables au même titre que les rejets de concentration. Pour le résidu dhydrométallurgie, ce même test semble conduire à des taux dextraction relativement comparables à ceux obtenus dans le scénario ordinaire. La percolixiviation montre que les premiers lixiviats, correspondant au rapport solide/liquide élevé, sont chargés en polluants et traduisent le relargage à court terme. Létude de la migration souterraine des polluants réalisée par percolation des solutions de lixiviation sur sol non remanié montre que les polluants mobilisés ont tendance à saccumuler dans lhorizon supérieur des sols et à présenter en premier lieu, contrairement à lopinion la plus répandue, des risques de pollution des sols plutôt que des aquifères. Cette rétention en surface est attribuable à la matière organique, aux argiles ou à des phénomènes de précipitation. La prévision statique du risque de drainage minier acide sur les rejets pyritiques montre, aussi bien suivant le protocole original de Sobek que celui modifié, que le potentiel net de neutralisation dacide et le rapport du potentiel de neutralisation sur le potentiel de génération dacide sont élevés et tombent dans une zone où la probabilité dobserver le drainage minier acide est quasi nulle. Cette absence du risque de drainage minier acide est attribuable à la nature dolomitique de la gangue. Lanalyse multicritère réalisée pour évaluer de façon globale limpact environnemental et classifier les rejets suivants les risques quils présentent vis-à-vis de lhomme et de lécosystème, montre quen prenant en considération le critère complexe associant les quatre indicateurs (taux de lixiviation, teneur en polluant, toxicité et perméabilité) avec la même pondération et dans un scénario ordinaire de lixiviation avec de leau, aucun des échantillons traités ne peut être considéré comme à faibles risques. Les rejets de pyrométallurgie sont à risques élevés. Le résidu dhydrométallurgie est à risques élevés dans tous les critères prenant en compte la lixiviabilité. Pour remédier aux risques que présentent les rejets se trouvant dans les bassins, le travail propose un confinement et une phytostabilisation. Cette remédiation est à la fois une alternative moins onéreuse et une mesure conservatoire dans le sens quelle offre la possibilité de revenir plus tard aux autres possibilités en fonction de lévolution du contexte local et du marché des métaux.

PhD - Science / This thesis presents the results of a broad geochronological investigation into the nature and evolution of the Central African Copperbelt, host of world class Cu-Co deposits in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. UPb SHRIMP dating of detrital, xenocrystic and magmatic zircons and metamorphic monazite as well as 40Ar-39Ar analyses on biotite, muscovite and microcline constrained the nature and the evolution of the basement, the deposition of the Katangan sedimentary sequence and the provenance of the sediments, and finally the different metamorphic episodes which affected the region. Regarding the pre-Katangan basement, U-Pb SHRIMP analyses of detrital and xenocrystic zircons revealed the first evidence of a cryptic c. 3.2-3.0 Ga Mesoarchaean terrane, named the Likasi terrane, in the basement of the Copperbelt. It was also discovered that the Lufubu schists, previously thought to be sedimentary in origin, are in fact intermediate metavolcanic rocks. These Lufubu schists, together with granitoids and gneisses from Zambia, yielded U-Pb SHRIMP ages between 2050 Ma and 1850 Ma and are interpreted as being related to the evolution of a large magmatic arc (or several magmatic arcs). These Paleoproterozoic terrains define the Lufubu Metamorphic Complex, which evolved together with the Bangweulu Block, the Ubendian Belt and the Tanzanian craton to collide with the Angola-Kasai craton to form the Kibaran Belt during the 1.4-1.0 Ga Kibaran Orogeny. Unconformably overlying the Lufubu Metamorphic Complex is the Muva Group, which is sedimentary in origin. A maximum U-Pb age of 1941 ± 40 Ma was found for its deposition in the Copperbelt area. Concerning the Katanga Supergroup, U-Pb SHRIMP analyses on detrital zircons showed that the sediments are mainly derived by erosion from the Paleaoproterozoic basement. 40Ar-39Ar analyses of detrital muscovites from the Biano Group, which forms the topmost unit of the Katanga Supergroup, yielded a maximum age of deposition of 573 ± 5. This implies a terminal Neoproterozoic and/or early Palaeozoic age for terminal Katangan deposition, and supports previous models for the deposition of the Biano Group in a foreland basin to the Lufilian Orogen . Finally, U-Pb SHRIMP analyses on monazites and 40Ar-39Ar analyses on biotite, muscovite and K-feldspar yielded ages at c. 590, c. 530, c. 512 and a range between 492 and 450 Ma. These ages correspond respectively to various events during and following the Pan-African Damaran-Lufilian- Zambezi orogeny, formed by collision of the Congo and Kalahari cratons, namely to a tectonic event coinciding with subduction-related eclogite facies metamorphism elsewhere in the Lufilian orogen; to the final stage of collision between the Kalahari and Congo cratons; to a wide-spread regional mineralising event; and finally to post-orogenic uplift and regional cooling.

Copper is the mainstay of the Zambian economy. From the inception of mining activities in the 1920s, it has accounted for the majority of the country‟s exports and foreign earnings. However, most people are of the view that its contribution to development programmes is disproportionate, well below their expectations. They attribute the contemporary failure to copper price volatility, international market forces, ownership, government ineptitude and the consequences of neoliberalism. Given the large expense involved in establishing and running copper mines, the country depends heavily on foreign capital. A big proportion of the copper that is mined in Zambia is sold in an unprocessed state denying the country additional revenue. This study assesses both the role of copper mining in the economic history of Zambia and its role in contemporary development as perceived and understood by current university-educated job market entrants on the Zambian Copperbelt, their educators and other commentators with work experience in the sector. / Theses (M.Dev.Studies)--University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2014.

This thesis traces the social history of the European community on the Zambian Copperbelt from the onset of copper mining in 1926 to the mid-1970s when a dramatic slump in the price of copper generated severe economic difficulties. There has been almost no academic work on the Copperbelt's European community and, in this respect, this thesis fills an important gap. However, a focus on the European community has a wider significance than filling this gap. Although the Copperbelt has generally been understood in a national or regional context, this thesis argues that developments there are better understood by exploring how the Copperbelt was linked to other mining regions around the world; in Britain, South Africa, the US and Australia. The European community was largely composed of highly mobile, transient individuals, and the constant movement of people made and sustained transnational connections. Mobility and transience are crucial to two of the main themes of this thesis: class consciousness and the importance of race. Class was a strong marker of identity for Europeans and a variant of 'white labourism' dominated life on the Copperbelt. Industrial unrest was a regular occurrence in the life of the European community as strikes and other disputes underpinned extraordinary levels of affluence. The frequency of industrial unrest diminishes the relevance of South Africa as a viable comparison, as does the relative lack of importance of race. This thesis argues that the predominant attitude of Europeans toward the African majority around them was one of indifference and that the importance of 'African advancement' has been overstated. Archival collections in Zambia and Britain constitute the main sources for this thesis. These sources are supplemented with material from archives in South Africa and Netherlands, contemporary publications including newspapers, and interviews with former European residents of the Copperbelt.

The Kaponda Prospect represents a surface of 915.8 km² located at about 10 km south of the town of Lubumbashi and 33km NW of Kasumbalesa in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It lies within Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Katangan Supergroup in the Central African Copperbelt (CACB). In this province, copper mineralization occurs at different stratigraphic level with different associated alteration. Mineralization is of multistage origin from synsedimentary, diagenetic to post orogenic. Since the discovery of the CACB in the early 20th century, several exploration techniques have been used to delineate Cu deposits. A review and application of these methods including remote sensing, geological mapping, geochemical and geophysical surveys, and drilling, gives an insight of their effectiveness and limitation before analyzing their results from the Kaponda Prospect. The geology and structure of the Prospect is represented by a series of two NW trending disharmonic tight anticlines, locally domal, with cores occupied by either Roan Group or “Grand Conglomerat” Formation. These anticlines are separated by an open syncline made of Kundelungu rocks. Two mains direction of faults are recognized, the NW and NE trending structures. The latter direction are normal transfer faults which can serve as conduit for mineralization. They are related to the late orogenic extension of the Lufilian belt. However NE trending faults are believed to be associated to the climax of Lufilian folding or represents synsedimentary intergrowth faults. Exploration approach for sediment-hosted Cu within Kaponda Prospect, take into account the integration of all information derived from different techniques. Remote sensing is used as aid to geology. Landsat and Google earth images show lineaments that corresponds to lithostratigraphy boundary and domal anticline. Geological mapping identified reduced horizons which can potentially host mineralization, whereas analysis of structure measurements reveals the geometry of fold and direction of its axial plane and hinge. Statistical methods such as the main + 2 standard deviation, the frequency histogram and probability plot, together with experiential method are used to constrain and define Cu and Co thresholds values in soil samples. It appears that in this region, log-probability plot and histogram methods combined with spatial representation and the experience of the region, are the best practice to constrain and separate geochemical background from anomaly data. Ground and airborne magnetic, and radiometric images show specific signatures which map alteration and particularly lithostratigraphy such as “Roan” Group, “Grand Conglomerat” unit, “Nguba” cap carbonates and “Kundelungu” siliciclastic units. Analysis of faults interpreted from geophysical maps identified three major directions: E-W, NE-SW and NW-SE. The E-W faults are also interpreted as normal transfer faults such NE-SW structures, consistent with regional geological map. Although pole-dipole array of induced polarization (IP) survey was directly targeting disseminated Cu sulphide, its results suffer in responding to graphitic rocks and barren pyrite. Only relative small chargeable bodies need to be tested in drilling follow-up. A total of 15 targets have been generated through re-interpretation and integration of both geological mapping and remote sensing, geochemical and geophysical data, as well as existing drilling. Specific recommendations of follow-up works are advised for each type of target.

Thesis (MSc (Forest and Wood Science))—University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / The utilization and commercialization of indigenous fruit trees has in the past been overlooked by extension agencies due to the misconception that they do not play a major role in contributing to the rural livelihoods. There is new and increasing emphasis on the contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) on improving the livelihoods and sustainable management of forest ecosystems of the Miombo woodlands. This study was conducted around Mwekera area in the Copperbelt province, Zambia to determine the role of indigenous fruit trees in the rural livelihoods. A total of 70 households were interviewed in the survey using semi-structured questionnaires, in-depth open ended interviews and focus group meetings to collect information on the use of indigenous fruits. The study revealed that 99% of the households experience ‘hunger’ during the rainy season from November to April every year. Ninety seven percent (97%) of the households collect indigenous fruit, with the most collected fruits being Uapaca kirkiana (74%), Anisophyllea boehmii (71%) and Parinari curatellifolia (67%). Additionally, there is very little selling of indigenous fruit (31%) but that Uapaca kirkiana and Anisophyllea boehmii account for 95% of the fruits sold. Forty six percent (46%) of the households process fruits of U. kirkiana, A. boehmii and P. curatellifolia into juice and/or porridge. Furthermore IFTs are also used as traditional medicine. Sixty three percent (63%) of the households used IFTs for medicinal purposes with two-thirds of the respondents citing Anisophyllea boehmii as an important medicinal tree species. The study also showed that 85% of the respondents have seen a change in the forest cover resulting into loss of biodiversity with 70% of the respondents indicating that the change is with respect to reduction in forest size and scarcity of some species; and that charcoal production and clearance of land for cultivation are the major causes of the scarcity of indigenous fruit trees. It is concluded that the major contribution of IFTs in the study area is in filling the gap during times of hunger rather as being a source of income through selling. Charcoal production and clearance for agriculture are the main contributing agents for the loss of biodiversity and scarcity of IFTs. It is recommended that domestication of IFTs and sustainable forestry and agricultural management practices be employed to ensure that future generations continue to benefit from the forest resource.

Sedimentary rock-hosted deposits are a major source of copper and cobalt, with the Neoproterozoic central African Copperbelt being among the largest Cu-Co provinces in the world, accounting for around 15% of its copper resource. The deposits occur primarily in the carbonates and siliciclastic sediments overlying the basement, and formed during early diagenesis (around 820 Ma) and late diagenesis/metamorphism during the Pan-African Orogeny (580-520 Ma). The northwest province of Zambia hosts three major copper deposits, amongst which is Kansanshi: the focus of this study. The deposit, which lies north of the Solwezi dome, is hosted within the Katangan Supergroup, particularly within the carbonaceous phyllites and porphyroblastic schists of the Mshwaya subgroup and lower Nguba Group and extends along the strike length of the North-West trending Kansanshi antiform. In this study, tomographic inversion is applied to first arrival refraction data collected at the Kansanshi Copper Mine with the aim of locating potential copper-bearing structures.  The survey was carried out using both dynamite and VIBSIST sources along 3 profiles; 2 trending North-East across the Kansanshi anticline and 1 trending north-west parallel to it. Seismic refraction tomography is an excellent tool for investigating the shallow subsurface, providing a velocity distribution. Unlike conventional refraction seismics, it allows for the velocity calculation of each cell in a non-homogeneous earth model, rather than just the average velocity of individual layers - allowing us to map structure and infer geological units and weathering profiles. The data highlights abundant faulting and varying depth to fresh bedrock. The various lithologies have also been interpreted.

The study was primary undertaken to critically study the nature of learner performance and teaching in public secondary schools in Zambia, with a focus on four public, co-education, day schools in the Copperbelt region for the purposes of addressing the challenge of poor performance in the Grade 12 National examinations that has characterised public secondary schools in the country. The researcher was guided by the main research question: ‘What is the nature of learner performance and teaching in public secondary schools in Zambia?’ The aim of the research was to establish the factors that negatively affected learner performance and teaching in the selected schools in order to develop effective mechanisms that would improve the education system in public secondary schools both at regional and national levels. The study was undertaken using a qualitative interpretive phenomenological approach mainly propounded by Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), for the purposes of collecting the lived experiences of the 24 purposively selected participants employed in this research: 4 head teachers, 8 teachers and 12 learners. Data collection was based on semi-structured interviews among the two longest serving teachers (male and female) per school and each of the head teachers in all the four schools; and two focus group interviews (from the highest and lowest performing schools) comprising six learners per group of equal gender among the selected Grade 12 candidates from the debate club and school council. The research also included analysis of documents like: school mission statements and visions, schemes and records of work and learners’ record of performance. The gathered information was manually analysed and interpreted. The major findings from the analysed data were that public secondary schools were negatively affected by four main categories of factors: (a) socio-economic factors; (b) the nature of the teaching and learning environment; (c) personal factors relating to the learners, teachers and head teachers; and (d) policy issues relating to learner enrolment and assessment, teacher selection, recruitment and development and highly controlled bureaucratic systems. The study established that improved learner performance is crucial to national development because the quality of an education system is measured by the performance of learners, and is the major drive for many aspects of development. The study also revealed that it was possible to improve learner performance, based on a number of lessons that can be drawn from the international research findings on characteristics of high-performing schools. Finally, the study recommends that public secondary schools in Zambia should revise their approach to enrolment of learners, teacher recruitment and development, and leadership appointment, and should adopt policies that meet the needs of the Zambian context as well as investing in research. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Philosophy of Education)