The researcher conducted a critical analysis of the policing of counterfeit crime in South Africa. A pure qualitative research design and approach was adopted. A literature review, interviews and observations were conducted to provide an overview of this problem nationally and internationally. Interview schedules were designed with pre-determined open-ended questions, which allowed participants to explain their perceptions, opinions and viewpoints on the policing of counterfeit in South Africa. Some of the designed questions were mailed to respondents. Questions were posed to members of the Specialised Commercial Crime Unit, members of the South African Police Service’s Crime Prevention Unit, members of the Department of Trade and Industry who deal with counterfeit, prosecutors who normally prosecute counterfeit cases, brand owners/holders/representatives, and attorneys who assist in the policing of counterfeit crime. The findings of this study informed the proposed recommendations for preventative and reactive response mechanisms. These proposed recommendations suggest ways of improving efficiency and effectiveness in policing counterfeit in South Africa. / Criminology and Security Science / Ph. D. (Criminal Justice)

Dans la mesure où la marque facilite le choix des consommateurs dans le spectre des variétés et qualités des produits, elle s'avère indispensable pour l'allocation efficace des ressources dans le processus productif, devenant ainsi un actif important des entreprises, au point qu'il existe désormais un « marché » sur lequel se rencontrent une offre et une demande de marques. En ce sens, le travail de recherche s'articule sur l'analyse économique de l'offre par les entreprises et les contrefacteurs et la demande de marques par les consommateurs. D'abord, il s'agit de démontrer que l'offre de marque est assimilable à un moyen de différenciation de l'entreprise sur un marché concurrentiel. La marque apparaît comme un vecteur important de l'activité entrepreneuriale, source de croissance. Ensuite, une autre partie de la recherche est consacrée à l'analyse de la marque du côté de la demande, et notamment à un aspect particulier de la demande de marque qui réside dans la demande de contrefaçon de marques. Nous proposons un modèle théorique d'achat de contrefaçons de marque avec un mécanisme de théorie des jeux sur la formation d'une norme sociale. Enfin, la présente étude tente de démontrer que les comportements de consommation de contrefaçon restent largement influencés par le cadre légal qui régit la contrefaçon de marque, et que l'efficacité des politiques de lutte contre ce phénomène est affectée par un élargissement du marché de la contrefaçon, lequel résulte de l'expansion croissante des nouvelles technologies et du développement de la consommation en réseau. / To the extent that brandname facilitates consumer choice in the spectrum of varieties and qualities of products, it is a determining factor of the efficient allocation of resources in the production process, thus becoming an important corporate asset, up to the point that there is now a "market" of brands where meet supply and demand for brands. Thus, this research is based on an economic analysis of the supply of brands by firms and counterfeiters and the demand for brands by consumers. First, it is to show that supplying a brand is comparable to a means of differentiating the firm in a competitive market, and the mark appears as an important driver of entrepreneurial activity and a source growth. Then, another part of the research is devoted to the analysis of the mark on the demand side of the market, including a particular aspect of the demand for trademark which is the demand for trademark infringement. We build a theoretical model of purchasing counterfeited brands with a mechanism of game theory on the formation of a social norm. Finally, we attempt to show that counterfeit consumption behavior remains largely influenced by the legal framework governing trademark infringement, and that the effectiveness of policies to fight against this phenomenon is affected by an expansion of the market counterfeiting, which results from the increasing expansion of new technologies and the growth of consumption in the network.

A noção de pirataria, pertencente ao vocabulário humano desde a Antiguidade, ganha novos sentidos no atual período histórico. Neste período da globalização, o modo de produção capitalista e o meio técnico-científico-informacional se tornaram planetários. Consolida-se, portanto, uma mesma base técnica do funcionamento das sociedades nos distintos territórios, acompanhada da globalização de normas de controle cada vez mais rígidas, como se procura mostrar, neste trabalho, a partir da expansão do sistema de patentes e de proteção de direitos intelectuais. Entretanto, as novas tecnologias informacionais e comunicacionais são progressivamente mais flexíveis e possibilitam, nos lugares onde se instalam, usos não previstos e, por isso mesmo, classificados como ilegais. Nesta pesquisa, defende-se que a expansão do meio técnico-científico-informacional no Brasil engendra novas formas de piratarias, sejam aquelas praticadas pelos agentes do circuito superior da economia urbana, sejam aquelas características do circuito inferior, de acordo com a proposição de Santos (1971; 2004 [1975]). A pirataria não pode, portanto, ser analisada como uma aberração ao processo de globalização em curso, mas, ao contrário, uma de suas manifestações mais notáveis. Assim, análises econômicas e jurídicas sobre o fenômeno, mesmo predominantes, não permitem a compreensão da totalidade dos agentes e situações envolvidos. O processo de urbanização do território combina a seletividade de objetos e informações, a desigualdade de renda e a manutenção de baixos salários, associados à ampla difusão de novas mercadorias cujo consumo é incentivado pela propaganda. Nesta situação brasileira, a pirataria, contraposta ao elevado preço das mercadorias ditas originais, tem uma função central no processo recente de modernização do território. Finalmente, almejando revelar a pirataria como um uso das técnicas e informações contemporâneas a partir dos lugares, são analisadas situações geográficas reveladoras de formas de vida e de produção baseadas na desapropriação como fonte de criação de novas economias urbanas, especialmente em São Paulo, Belém do Pará e Foz do Iguaçu - Ciudad del Este. / The notion of piracy, which has been used by human vocabulary since old times, acquires a new sense during the historic period. At this globalization period, the way of capitalist production and the informational scientific technical environment have become worldwide. It consolidates, therefore, on the same technical basis of the society functioning in distinct territories, followed for the more and more rigid world rules of control, as it is presented, on this essay, on the expansion of legal right system and the protection of the intellectual rights. However, the new informational and communicational technologies are progressively more flexible and they allow, where they are set on, non-predict uses and, for that, classified as illegals. This research takes into consideration the expansion of the informational scientific technical environment in Brazil cause new ways of piracy, those that are practiced by the agent of higher circuit of the urban economy, or those whose features of the lower circuit, according Santos proposition(1971; 2004 [1975]). The piracy cannot, therefore, be analyzed as nonstandard to the globalization process in course, but, on the contrary, one of the most remarkable manifestations. So, economic and juridical analysis on the phenomenon, predominant or not, do not allow the comprehension of the totality of the involving agents and situations. The process of urbanizing of the territory combines the selectivity of objects and information, the social inequalities and the maintenance of low incomes, combined to the enormous diffusion of the new goods whose consumption is stimulated by propaganda. In this Brazilian situation, the piracy, contrasting to the higher price of goods so called originals, has a central function on the recent process of modernization of the territory. Finally, getting into the point to reveal piracy as a use of the up-to-date technics and information from the places, they are analyzed as revealed geographical situations of life style and of the production based on embezzlement as source of creation of an urban economy, especially in São Paulo, Belém do Pará and Foz do Iguaçu - Ciudad del Este.

自19世紀以降，各國體認以國內法律為基礎的保護方式具有侷限性，因此開始嘗試以國際條約的方式對智慧財產權進行規範，產生了巴黎公約、伯恩公約、羅馬公約等國際協定，可定位為智慧財產權保護多邊貿易架構形成的第一階段，也是第一次各國國內立法朝國際保護靠攏的現象。1967年WIPO成立使多邊貿易架構顯得較為完備，然而在WIPO之運作架構下又因為不同國家的立場分歧未能進一步修正智慧財產權公約，多邊架構發展出現瓶頸，已開發國家未因此退出多邊貿易架構，反而選擇持續完善此多邊架構。TRIPS於1995年烏拉圭回合後生效，規定了嚴格且具體的執行規範，但是多邊架構未能於TRIPS後再取得重大成果，已開發國家和開發中國家在智慧財產權利益之立場分歧使得多邊架構之發展陷入僵局。已開發國家於TRIPS後時期選擇了另一種途徑，本文舉美國FTAs貿易政策為例，發現此時出現了暫時偏離多邊架構，改以雙邊架構為政策重心的分離，惟雙邊貿易政策經本文分析並無法產生美國的預期效果。 ACTA的發展可以定位出美國目前的政策走向，改採協商複邊貿易協定的方式，希望可以循FTAs政策的途徑，企圖讓ACTA此複邊架構的成果可以擴張到多邊架構中。本文認為2010年12月公布最終版本的ACTA能否順利生效仍屬未知數，即便順利生效，依其談判成果可以推定，已無法達到所有參與談判國的預期。不論已開發國家之後的政策走向為何，我們可以發現擁有智慧財產權利益國家的最終目標仍是提升國際間智慧財產權保護水準，過程中則變動地、持續地在多邊、複邊貿易架構中，選擇性執行能達成最終目標的政策，國際智慧財產權保護貿易架構中存在著各國政策反覆於多邊、複邊架構間來回擺盪的分合現象。 關鍵字：TRIPS、反仿冒貿易協定、智慧財產權保護、TRIPS-Plus / Countries found out that the protection of intellectual property based only on national law was insufficient. They chosen to base on international agreement from 19 century and concluded important treaties such as Paris Convention, Berne Convention and Rome Convention. This is the first phase in the process of which the intellectual property protection under the multilateral trade framework forming. WIPO was established at 1967 and completed the multilateral trade framework a little further. But countries had different positions thus could not obtain mutual recognition on specific issues. The developed countries did not walk away from the framework; nevertheless, they worked even harder to try to get some result. TRIPS came into force at 1995 after the Uruguay Round which is the most important multilateral agreement at the present day. The multilateral trade framework was stuck after TRIPS resulting from the gap between the developed and developing countries. The former began to work in other direction. We took the U.S. bilateral trade policy of FTAs as an example and found out there is a temporary departure from the multilateral trade framework at this phase. The U.S. policy of FTAs however didn’t achieve the goal expected. We could point out the next step of U.S. by observing the negotiation of Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA). U.S. took a different approach by negotiating the ACTA and hoped there will be a spillover effect from the plurilateral agreement to the multilateral framework. Negotiating parties announced the final draft of ACTA on December 3rd, 2010. After analyzing the final draft, we could make a conclusion that the result from the negotiation is not outstanding; moreover, it is not clear whether the agreement will come into force in time. No matter what kind of action will the developed countries take in the next, their final and utmost goal is always trying to protect the intellectual property and their related interest. Changing policy becomes the normal condition. This leads to the phenomenon that the intellectual property protection is continuously swaying from the multilateral side to the bilateral or plurilateral trade framework, and vice versa. Key Words: TRIPS, Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement, Intellectual Property Protection, TRIPS-Plus

A noção de pirataria, pertencente ao vocabulário humano desde a Antiguidade, ganha novos sentidos no atual período histórico. Neste período da globalização, o modo de produção capitalista e o meio técnico-científico-informacional se tornaram planetários. Consolida-se, portanto, uma mesma base técnica do funcionamento das sociedades nos distintos territórios, acompanhada da globalização de normas de controle cada vez mais rígidas, como se procura mostrar, neste trabalho, a partir da expansão do sistema de patentes e de proteção de direitos intelectuais. Entretanto, as novas tecnologias informacionais e comunicacionais são progressivamente mais flexíveis e possibilitam, nos lugares onde se instalam, usos não previstos e, por isso mesmo, classificados como ilegais. Nesta pesquisa, defende-se que a expansão do meio técnico-científico-informacional no Brasil engendra novas formas de piratarias, sejam aquelas praticadas pelos agentes do circuito superior da economia urbana, sejam aquelas características do circuito inferior, de acordo com a proposição de Santos (1971; 2004 [1975]). A pirataria não pode, portanto, ser analisada como uma aberração ao processo de globalização em curso, mas, ao contrário, uma de suas manifestações mais notáveis. Assim, análises econômicas e jurídicas sobre o fenômeno, mesmo predominantes, não permitem a compreensão da totalidade dos agentes e situações envolvidos. O processo de urbanização do território combina a seletividade de objetos e informações, a desigualdade de renda e a manutenção de baixos salários, associados à ampla difusão de novas mercadorias cujo consumo é incentivado pela propaganda. Nesta situação brasileira, a pirataria, contraposta ao elevado preço das mercadorias ditas originais, tem uma função central no processo recente de modernização do território. Finalmente, almejando revelar a pirataria como um uso das técnicas e informações contemporâneas a partir dos lugares, são analisadas situações geográficas reveladoras de formas de vida e de produção baseadas na desapropriação como fonte de criação de novas economias urbanas, especialmente em São Paulo, Belém do Pará e Foz do Iguaçu - Ciudad del Este. / The notion of piracy, which has been used by human vocabulary since old times, acquires a new sense during the historic period. At this globalization period, the way of capitalist production and the informational scientific technical environment have become worldwide. It consolidates, therefore, on the same technical basis of the society functioning in distinct territories, followed for the more and more rigid world rules of control, as it is presented, on this essay, on the expansion of legal right system and the protection of the intellectual rights. However, the new informational and communicational technologies are progressively more flexible and they allow, where they are set on, non-predict uses and, for that, classified as illegals. This research takes into consideration the expansion of the informational scientific technical environment in Brazil cause new ways of piracy, those that are practiced by the agent of higher circuit of the urban economy, or those whose features of the lower circuit, according Santos proposition(1971; 2004 [1975]). The piracy cannot, therefore, be analyzed as nonstandard to the globalization process in course, but, on the contrary, one of the most remarkable manifestations. So, economic and juridical analysis on the phenomenon, predominant or not, do not allow the comprehension of the totality of the involving agents and situations. The process of urbanizing of the territory combines the selectivity of objects and information, the social inequalities and the maintenance of low incomes, combined to the enormous diffusion of the new goods whose consumption is stimulated by propaganda. In this Brazilian situation, the piracy, contrasting to the higher price of goods so called originals, has a central function on the recent process of modernization of the territory. Finally, getting into the point to reveal piracy as a use of the up-to-date technics and information from the places, they are analyzed as revealed geographical situations of life style and of the production based on embezzlement as source of creation of an urban economy, especially in São Paulo, Belém do Pará and Foz do Iguaçu - Ciudad del Este.

The chapter, which should bring a basic overview about money and its counterfeiting, is called "Money". With usage of theoretical and empirical money definitions I introduced money and its historical development in the world and also in Czech countries. The last part of this chapter explains money circulation in economics. The third chapter is about counterfeiting development and about punishments which threatened to people if they were accused of counterfeiting. We can find a lot of concrete examples of fake money in Czech Republic and a story about a nazi camp Sachsenhausen, where Hilter and its soldiers were forcing Jewish prisoner to make fake British pounds and American dollars. The next chapter contains individual protective elements which can be found on Czech and world banknotes. The practical part begins with a chapter which shows pictures of Czech banknotes with the placement of protective elements. The analysis of the current situation in the field of money counterfeiting was done in chapter No 6 (the analysis is a main goal of this thesis). The following chapter brings information about a survey (it was done in February and March 2012 among Czech public) -- initial hypothesis, evaluation and dependencies could be found there. All my proposal and initiatives which can improve the current situation are stated in the closing chapter together with a summary of the thesis practical part.

This thesis aims to find out what legal remedies relating to aesthetic aspects of design are used in the fashion industry. The first part defines the term design, deals with its division and aspects of its legal protection as an intangible asset. Following parts deal with legal protection of aesthetic aspects of design in the Czech Republic, at the level of EU law and the U.S. law, both in terms of legislation and in terms of disputes that have already been held in the fashion industry.

Confronté à des atteintes massives et lucratives, le droit de la propriété intellectuelle est protégé par des réseaux de normes répressives, formant la matière pénale. Le droit pénal, droit traditionnel de protection des autres droits, forme un réseau composé de règles pénales, tant substantielles que formelles, spécifiques au droit de la propriété intellectuelle, et de certaines infractions contre les biens, du livre troisième du code pénal. Ces normes se heurtent à plusieurs écueils. Le droit pénal de la propriété intellectuelle appréhende difficilement le caractère massif ou transfrontalier des infractions et si les incriminations du code pénal peuvent s’inscrire dans les vides répressifs laissés par celui-ci, leur adaptation aux biens incorporels non rivaux bouleverse les équilibres. D’une part, cette adaptation est réalisée pour leur application aux informations, sans considération de leur caractère appropriable, ce qui affaiblit l’intérêt du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. D’autre part, ces infractions entrent en concours avec celles spécifiques au droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Ineffectif, le droit pénal de la propriété intellectuelle subit, aussi, la dépénalisation judiciaire de ce droit. Ignorant l’indispensable réforme de ce droit pénal, le législateur a créé de nouveaux réseaux répressifs. Si le droit administratif répressif, mis en œuvre par l’HADOPI, pouvait constituer une alternative pertinente au droit pénal, pour la lutte contre la massification des infractions au droit d’auteur et aux droits voisins sur Internet, l’attribution des sanctions au juge répressif en a réduit l’attrait. A l’aune de la jurisprudence de la CEDH, les normes civiles répressives, applicables au droit de la propriété intellectuelle, forment un réseau rival du droit pénal, dont les effets systémiques imposent de réfléchir au dessein de la frontière entre les responsabilités civile et pénale. La matière pénale de la propriété intellectuelle, née de la dilatation de la répression, est donc constituée de normes pénales, dont seules celles du code pénal apparaissent effectives, d’un droit administratif à la fonction répressive altérée et d’un droit civil répressif inefficace. Protection défaillante d’un droit affaibli, elle doit être restructurée. Une cohérence peut être instaurée par son organisation autour du droit de propriété, dont émane le droit de la propriété intellectuelle. La création d’un droit pénal de la propriété pourrait ainsi conférer une protection efficace au droit de la propriété intellectuelle, complétée par des normes répressives spécifiques. / The intellectual property rights, which are confronted with massive, lucrative infringements, are protected by several networks of repressive norms that constitute criminal matters. Penal law, a traditional body of law for the protection of the other forms of law, constitute the first network. It is composed of criminal law rules, both substantive and procedural, which are specific to intellectual property law, and certain property offences from Book III of the French Penal Code. These norms encounter several obstacles. This criminal law applied to intellectual property has difficulty grasping the massive or cross-border nature of infringements. Although offences under the French Penal Code may occur in the punitive legal vacuum left by this body of law, their adaptation to non-rival intangible assets upsets balances. On the one hand, this adaptation is effected by applying them to information without taking account of their appropriable nature, thereby weakening the benefits of intellectual property law. On the other hand, these offences compete with offences that are specific to intellectual property law. Penal law, which is ineffective, has also been subject to the judicial decriminalization of intellectual property law. Overlooking the pressing need to reform such criminal law applied to intellectual property, legislators have created new repressive networks. Whereas repressive administrative law, as implemented by HADOPI, could offer a relevant alternative to the massification of infringements of copyright and related rights on the Internet, allowing judges exercising criminal jurisdiction to impose sanctions has diminished its appeal. In the light of the ECHR’s case-law, repressive civil law forms a rival network to penal law, but its ineffectiveness with regard to intellectual property law and its systemic effects force us to reflect on the purpose for the boundary between civil and criminal liability. Criminal matters, which stem from the expansion of judicial repression, are thus comprised of criminal norms, of which only those of the French Penal Code appear effective, of administrative law with an altered repressive function, and of ineffective repressive civil law. Since the protection of a weakened right turned out to be defective, it must be restructured. Consistency can be achieved by organizing it around property law which is the origin of intellectual property law. Using this approach, creating penal law applied to property could offer effective protection for intellectual property rights, supplemented by specific repressive norms.

Face à la "mondialisation" du fléau de la contrefaçon, les États ont édicté l'Accord ADPIC pour harmoniser, à l'échelle internationale, les règles de protection des droits de propriété intellectuelle et les moyens de les faire respecter contre la contrefaçon. L'Accord ADPIC est le premier traité multilatéral qui prévoit de véritables "moyens de faire respecter les droits de propriété intellectuelle". Sa partie III consacre un important volet aux prescriptions spéciales aux frontières, aux procédures et mesures correctives, civiles et pénales destinées à lutter contre la contrefaçon. Signataires de l'Accord ADPIC, les seize États membres de l'Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle (OAPI) ont révisé le 24 février 1999, leur législation commune l'Accord de Bangui afin de se conformer à leurs engagements internationaux. Cette étude consacrée aux marques, catégorie des droits de propriété intellectuelle la plus connue mais aussi la plus contrefaite de l'espace OAPI, démontre que les exigences de l'Accord ADPIC ne sont pas respectées plusieurs années après sa ratification. La première partie de cette étude consiste en une analyse critique des règles de protection de la marque. La seconde partie met en exergue le non respect des droits des détenteurs de marques contre la contrefaçon. Après avoir souligné les nombreuses contingences qui entament l'efficacité des moyens de lutte contre la contrefaçon, une série de mesures est proposée afin d'améliorer le respect des droits de marques en particulier et de propriété intellectuelle en général. / Faced with the "globalization" of the scourge of counterfeiting, states have enacted the TRIPS Agreement to harmonize on an international scale the rules of protection of intellectual property rights and means to enforce them against counterfeiting. The TRIPS Agreement is the first multilateral treaty that provides real "means of enforcing intellectual property rights." Part III devotes an important part on special border requirements, procedures and remedies, civil and criminal measures to fight against counterfeiting. As signatories of the TRIPS Agreement, the sixteen members of the African Intellectual Property Organization (AIPO) revised on the 24th February 1999, their common law the Bangui Agreement in order to comply with their international commitments. This study on trademarks, the best known category of intellectual property but also the most counterfeited in the AIPO space, demonstrates that the requirements of the TRIPS Agreement are not met several years after its ratification. The first part of this study is a critical analysis of the rules of trademarks protection. The second part highlights the disregard for the rights of trademarks owners against counterfeiting. Having underlined the many contingencies that cut into the effectiveness of the fight against counterfeiting, a serie of measures is proposed to improve the rights of particular trademarks and intellectual property in general.

Ce travail s’inscrit dans le cadre du développement de nouvelles stratégies d’anti-contrefaçon. Des marqueurs oligouréthanes à séquences définies ont été étudiés comme nouvelles stratégies dans la traçabilité et la lutte contre la contrefaçon. Ces oligouréthanes à séquence définie ont été préparés par chimie itérative en phase solide. Leur synthèse est basée sur l'utilisation de deux étapes chimiosélectives successives; la formation d'un carbonate activé et sa réaction sélective avec la fonction amine primaire d'un aminoalcool. L'utilisation de différents blocs constitutifs d'aminoalcools avec différents groupes latéraux comme de monomères de base permet la synthèse de polymères codés en séquence. Par conséquent, chaque oligouréthane a une séquence de monomère unique qui constitue une identité exclusive du produit. Dans ce travail, les marqueurs oligouréthanes ont été incorporés dans différents types de matériaux hôtes, tels que des films plastiques, des implants biomédicaux et du bois. L'extraction des marqueurs, par spectrométrie de masse en tandem (MS / MS) ont été étudiées en collaboration avec un laboratoire de spectrométrie de masse. Pour tous les matériaux étudiés, les différents marqueurs ont été extraits efficacement et leurs séquences ont été décryptées par MS/MS, démontrant ainsi la robustesse et la polyvalence de la stratégie de marquage basée sur l’utilisation de oligouréthanes à séquence-définie. Dans ce travail, il a été également démontré que ces marqueurs peuvent être stockés avec succès et utilisés in vivo. Sur la base de ces résultats forts prometteurs, des stratégies de marquage plus perfectionnées (donc plus sécurisées) ont également été étudiées dans ce travail. Par exemple, le développement de marqueurs codés en séquence 2D et l’intégration de manière covalente des marqueurs aux réseaux de polymères sont également décrits dans cette thèse. / This PhD thesis deals with the development of a new anti-counterfeiting strategy. Sequence-defined oligourethane taggants were studied herein as a novel option for anti-counterfeit and traceability applications. These oligomers were prepared by iterative solid-phase chemistry. Their synthesis is based on the use of two successive chemoselective steps; the formation of an activated carbonate and its selective reaction with the primary amine function of an amino alcohol. The use of different amino alcohol building-blocks with different side-groups allows synthesis of sequence-coded polymers. Therefore, each oligourethane has a unique monomer sequence, which constitutes an exclusive product identity. In this work, oligourethane taggants were included in different types of host materials such as model commodity plastic films, biomedical implants and wood. The extraction and detection of the taggants by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was studied in a collaboration with a mass spectrometry laboratory. In all cases, the coded oligourethanes were efficiently extracted from the host materials and their sequences were deciphered by MS/MS, thus evidencing the robustness and versatility of the taggant strategy. For instance, it was even demonstrated in this thesis that the taggants can be successfully stored and used in vivo. Based on these successful results, more complex (thus more secure) tagging strategies were also studied in this work. For instance, the development of 2D-sequence-coded taggants and the covalent attachment of the taggants to polymer networks are also described in this thesis.