The Prevention of Organised Crime Act brought major changes to the South African criminal law context. Through the Act, major confiscatory provisions were established. The Act does not only target convicted criminals, but also any person who is in possession of tainted property that was used in the commission of offences. Civil forfeiture is the most widely used procedure in forfeiture proceedings. In the dissertation the effectiveness of criminal and civil confiscation is outlined. The historical development of confiscation and forfeiture provisions in South African is discussed with reference to the common law, legislation and international instruments and how international developments have influenced local development. This treatise consist of an overview of the confiscation provisions in the Prevention of Organised Act 121 of 1998 as one of the measures the South African legislature put in place to deal with organised crime. Since the Prevention of Organised Crime Act was passed, the courts have given meaning to what is an instrumentality of an offence and the proceeds of unlawful activities as a measure to counter organised crime. This treatise refers to those cases given the definition of an instrumentality of an offence and the proceeds of unlawful activities. For the purpose of effectively dealing with organised crime, this treatise contains a discussion on the effectiveness of criminal and civil confiscation procedure. The justification for asset forfeiture is outlined.

Thesis (MPA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2017 / The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the measures in the prevention and control of organised crime by government agencies based in Limpopo Province. The research was qualitative in nature and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 law enforcement officers from the DPCI, DSSL, SAPS, Home Affairs, SARS Customs and Excess, AFU, and the NPA PCLU. Data was analysed though thematic analysis. The results revealed that the government strategies in Limpopo still require concerted efforts in the prevention and control of organised crime. The government has identified measures to fight organised crime and has adopted the criminal justice response/ institutional and the legislative response to the crime. The measures taken by various units are found to be ineffective in dealing with organised crime since organised criminal networks are often flexible, dynamic, innovative and resilient. Furthermore, corrupt activities and collusions by law enforcement officers hinder the effective implementation of the strategies to control organised crime. The findings of the study show that there is coordination and communication among the law enforcement agencies such as the DPCI, SARS, Home Affairs, and the NPA PCLU, among others. This coordination is envisaged through intelligence, information sharing and interoperability. The study highlighted poor implementation of the multi-agency approach as one institution is expected to facilitate and lead the prevention of organised crime (which is the DPCI). The findings further highlight, for example, that the smuggling of illegal cigarettes is currently a challenge for the provincial government as a highly committed organised crime. The study recommends for the development, by the government, of an Organised Crime Threat Assessment in order to effectively recognise the need for responses, which should be based on a sound understanding of the nature and characteristics of the organised crime environment. In addition, it recommends for the development of an Organised Crime Response Plan to align efforts to identified critical organised crime threats. The study further recommends for the adoption, by the government, of relevant multi-agency approaches in addressing organise crime – both operational and policy or regulatory – which will underpin a whole-of-provincial government approach to organised crime. KEY WORDS: Organised Crime, Criminal, Crime Prevention, Crime Control, Effectiveness, Coordination.

Every phenomenon evolves with times. Illicit activities like Transnational Organized Crimes (TOC) are not an exception in this regard. Africa, especially West and Southern Africa, have been challenged by a number of TOCs. Ghana and South Africa are amongst the countries in West and Southern Africa that have been subjected to a range of crimes of this nature. Drug trafficking and money laundering are the most prominent illicit activities in Ghana and South Africa. Drug trafficking and money laundering has been prevalent in Ghana and South Africa to such an extent that it has contributed to the growth of illicit economy. Increased size of illicit economy, constrained state capacity and expansion of TOCs are amongst effects of drug trafficking and money laundering in Ghana and South Africa. This dissertation evaluates state capacity in relation to drug trafficking and money laundering in Ghana and South Africa in the period from 2001 to 2011. Regulatory, administrative, technical and extractive are elements of state capacity being looked at. The research used qualitative research method, this was achieved through textual analysis of secondary sources. Regulatory, administrative, and technical state capacity elements have been fairly operational in dealing with drug trafficking and money laundering in the period from 2001 to 2011 in the two countries being looked at. On the other hand extractive state capacity element has been struggling from 2001 to 2011 in reducing drug trafficking and money laundering in Ghana and South Africa. It is clear that globalization has played an important role in the occurrence of the two TOCs under discussion. To better understand TOCs further research needs to look at other regions within and outside Africa. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

A considerable amount of research has been done regarding the hijacking of passenger vehicles. Little however, has been written on the hijacking of trucks with freight. The purpose of the research was to describe the nature, occurrence and extent of the hijacking of trucks with freight, the persons involved (this includes the victims and the offenders) and the impact these crimes have on the crime scene in South Africa. The research also aimed to develop a criminological model for prevention, based on the modus operandi of the offenders. Based on the theories explaining violent and economic crimes (e.g. anomie, differential association and sub-culture), an attempt was also made to explain the hijacking of trucks with freight. / Criminology / M.A.

A considerable amount of research has been done regarding the hijacking of passenger vehicles. Little however, has been written on the hijacking of trucks with freight. The purpose of the research was to describe the nature, occurrence and extent of the hijacking of trucks with freight, the persons involved (this includes the victims and the offenders) and the impact these crimes have on the crime scene in South Africa. The research also aimed to develop a criminological model for prevention, based on the modus operandi of the offenders. Based on the theories explaining violent and economic crimes (e.g. anomie, differential association and sub-culture), an attempt was also made to explain the hijacking of trucks with freight. / Criminology and Security Science / M.A.

This research was initiated as a result of the ever-evolving sophistication of criminal syndicates in their perseverance of organised crime and their use of electronic covert methodologies. Based on the researcher’s extensive managerial and operational experience, and on his unofficial observation of prosecutors, investigators and intelligence operatives, it became clear to him that there is a lack of evidence in court regarding serious and organised crime prosecutions. This can be attributed to the lack of use of investigative techniques, or investigative techniques being incorrectly used and/or a lack of knowledge regarding the use of investigative techniques. One such example of an investigative technique is surveillance or electronic surveillance. In this research study, the use and legality of electronic surveillance as a technique in the fight against organised crime, is discussed. Both national and international literature have been perused on the topic in question. Interviews were conducted with experienced former SAPS officers who were exposed to the use of electronic surveillance in the investigation of organised crime, as well as interviews with prosecutors, outlining the positive attributes of, as well as the shortcomings in, the use of electronic surveillance as an investigative tool in the investigation of organised crime. Surveillance or electronic surveillance has been in existence for a long period of time, but its usage or “know how” has been limited to only a few. The main purpose of the research is to highlight the importance of electronic surveillance as a covert technique in the investigation of organised crime. / Criminology and Security Science / M. Tech. (Criminal Justice)

Since the advent of the new democratic order established under the 1996 Constitution, South Africa has been plagued with many new challenges .One of the facts that our new democratic state could not ignore was the rapid increase in both national and international, organized criminal activity .The South African Legislature realizing the desire to combat serious criminal activities, introduced into South African Law, the Prevention of Organized Crime Act 121 of 1998. The Act recognizes that conventional criminal penalties are inadequate as measures of deterrence when organized crime leaders are able to retain the considerable gains derived from organized crime, even on those occasions when they are brought to justice. It strives to strip sophisticated criminals of the proceeds of their criminal conduct. The Courts, in applying this legislation, has also created a new field of law that had until the advent of the Act, not existed in South African Law, namely organized crime law. A field, distinct from the ordinary principles of criminal law. The bulk of jurisprudence created over the past decade or more, however seems to be threatened to be undone by the recent judgment concerning the constitutionality of certain provisions of the Act. The confirmation of this judgment is being considered by the Constitutional Court and the purpose of this thesis is to argue against the confirmation of this judgment / Public, Constitutional and International Law / LL. M.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research study aims to analyze the illicit arms trade in states in transition. While both the study of the illicit arms trade and the study of states in transition per se, are characterized by a variety of concepts and debates within academia, this study attempts to establish a coherent and concise connection between the two. Therefore, the main research question is: How do the capacity gaps of social control, social welfare, border control and legitimacy contribute to the proliferation of the illicit arms trade in states in transition? For the purpose of this study, the researcher uses the theoretical framework based on capacity gaps and functional holes as outlined by Phil Williams (2002). Williams (2002) states that organized crime and transnational organized crime (TOC), which the illicit arms trade is a part of, flourish in states that are weakened by capacity gaps and where the accompanying functional holes open up the way for organized crime and TOC to work with impunity. The seven capacity gaps that Williams (2002) outlines are: social control, social welfare, business regulation, oversight and accountability, border control, legitimacy and electoral norms and patterns. However, this thesis does not focus on all seven capacity gaps; instead, only the capacity gaps of social control, social welfare, border control and legitimacy are analysed. This decision has been based on the literature by Williams (2002), Migdal (1988), Beck and Laeven (2006), who suggest that a state in transition cannot complete its transitional period and become a consolidated democracy if high levels of social control, social welfare, respect for the rule of law and legitimacy are not obtained. Moreover, this research study conducts a comparative analysis of two states in transition, South Africa and Croatia, which have both been experiencing difficulties with TOC and the illicit arms trade, and where both states still have not completed their transitional period, and are thus not consolidated democracies. This research does not imply that the findings of this study are applicable to all states in transition; the focus is rather on how the four capacity gaps and functional holes that this research focused on contribute to the proliferation of the illicit arms trade in South Africa and Croatia. The findings indicate that due to high levels of corruption within the judicial system and police, the citizens of South Africa and Croatia lack trust in the states’ capacity to impose social control, which in turn opens the way for organized criminal groups to work with impunity. Furthermore, the social welfare capacity gap contributes to the rise in levels of organized crime and the illicit arms trade due to the fact that levels of inequality and unemployment force the citizens of South Africa and Croatia to look for alternative survival strategies, usually those that organized criminal groups can provide them with. Moreover, the lack of resources and corruption among custom officials and police staff, serve as opportunities for organized criminal groups to traffic illicit goods over South Africa and Croatia’s borders; thus indicating a functional hole in the states interdictory capacity and an overall gap in the states capacity to control its borders. Lastly, due to the South African and Croatian citizens’ lack of trust in the institutions and the state apparatus in general, the capacity gap of legitimacy is visible. This in turn opens the way for organized criminal groups to use patron-client relationships with the citizens of South Africa and Croatia, in order to build and sustain a level of popular legitimacy that the state is lacking. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie navorsingsprojek streef daarna om die onwettige handel in wapens as deel van transnasionale georganiseerde misdaad binne state in transisie te analiseer. Alhoewel navorsing in die onwettige handel van wapens, asook die studie van state in transisie gekenmerk word deur vele konsepte en debatte binne die velde; poog hierdie studie om die twee konsepte in ʼn duidelike en presiese manier te verbind. In die lig hiervan is die navorsings vraag: Hoe dra die kapasiteitsgapings van sosiale beheer, sosiale welvaart, grens kontrole en legitimiteit by tot die volhoubaarheid van die onwettige handel in wapens in state in transisie? Vir die doel van hierdie studie het die navorser besluit om gebruik te maak van die teoretiese raamwerk gebaseer op kapasiteitsgapings en funksionele-openinge soos beskryf deur Phil Williams (2002). Wiliams (2002) voer aan dat georganiseerde misdaad en transnasionale misdaad, waarvan die onwettige handel in wapens ʼn deel uitmaak, floreer in state wat verswak is deur kapasitietsgapings; en waar bygaande funksionele-openinge die weg baan vir transnasionale misdaad om te floreer. Die sewe kapasiteitsgapings soos deur Williams (2002) beskryf is: sosiale beheer, sosiale welvaart, besigheid-regulering, oorsig en aanspreeklikheid, grens kontrole, legitimiteit en verkiesings norme en patrone. Hierdie tesis fokus egter nie op al sewe kapasiteitsgapings nie. Daar word slegs gefokus op die kapasiteitsgapings van sosiale beheer, sosiale welvaart, grens kontrole en legitimiteit. Hierdie besluit is gebaseer op literatuur deur William (2002), Joel S. Migdal (1988), Thorsten Beck en Luc Laeven (2006) en dies meer wat voorstel dat ʼn staat in transisie nie die transisie periode kan voltooi en ʼn vaste demokrasie kan raak indien hoe vlakke van sosiale beheer, sosiale welvaart, respek vir wet en orde en legitimiteit nie verkry word nie. Verder maak hierdie navorsing gebruik van ʼn vergelykende analise tussen twee state in transisie: Suid Afrika en Kroasië. Beide hierdie state ervaar probleme met trans-nasionale misdaad en die onwettige handel in wapens. Beide het ook nog nie hul transisie periode voltooi nie en is dus nie vaste of gekonsolideerde demokrasieë nie. Hoewel die navorser nie aanvoer dat die bevindinge van hierdie studie van toepassing is op alle state in transisie nie, probeer die navorser vasstel hoe die vier kapasiteitsgapings en funksionele-openinge bydrae tot die volhoubaarheid van die onwettige handel in wapens in Suid Afrika en Kroasië. Die bevindinge dui daarop dat as gevolg van hoë vlakke van korrupsie binne die regstelsel en polisie, die bevolking van Suid Afrika en Kroasië nie die staat se kapasiteit om sosiale beheer te handhaaf, vertrou nie. Dit maak die gaping oop vir georganiseerde misdaad om sonder teenkant te handel. Verder, die sosiale welvaart gaping, dra by tot die toename in die vlakke van georganiseerde misdaad en die onwettige handel in wapens as gevolg van hoë vlakke van ongelykheid en armoede, wat die bevolking van Suid Afrika en Kroasië dwing tot alternatiewe metodes van oorlewing wat gewoonlik deur georganiseerde misdaad groepe verskaf word. Verder, die gebrek aan toerusting en ook korrupsie binne grensbeheer en polisie lede, verskaf die geleentheid vir georganiseerde misdaad groepe om in onwettige goedere te handel. Dit dui op die funksionele gaping in die staat se beheersmeganismes en oor die algemeen ʼn gaping in die staat se kapasiteit om grense te beheer. Ten laaste, as gevolg van die gebrek aan vertroue van die bevolking in die strukture van die staat Suid Afrika en Kroasië is die kapasitietsgaping van legitimiteit duidelik teenwoordig. Dit open die weg vir georganiseerde misdaad groepe om populêre gesag op te bou, wat daar nie is by die regering van die lande nie.

The most challenging and spoken criminal phenomenon today is indisputably organised crime. It is a crime that both the general public, business community, commentators, researchers, scholars, journalists, writers, politicians, prosecutors, jurists and presiding officials debate with different interpretation and understanding of the concept as well as the manifestation of the phenomena. Debates on the subject have seen the dawn of rival terminologies of organised crime and crimes that are organised. While the United Nations has not assisted the nations in finding a definition of what organised crime is, the confusion has spread throughout the globe and South Africa has not been spared the pandemonium. The objective of this study is to comparatively assess the present understanding and setup in South Africa in comparison with Italy, Tanzania and the United States of America, identify the root causes of the confusion and find possible remedies to liberate the situation. The research concludes with the findings and recommendations. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.D.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study set out to research the influence of a local non-state actor on the role and authority of the state, in the domestic environment. Accordingly, the research problem focused on the impact of a domestic actor on the association between the state and the society. This study only focused on the state at the level of local government and the impact of one specific actor, organised criminal groups, on social control by the state. Thus, state-society relations were discussed in this context. In order to guide this study, the main and two supportive research questions were stated as follows: What is the impact of organised crime on the social control by the state? What are the power dynamics between local governance, criminal agents and society? Has the state become criminalised at the level of local government, as a result of the activities of organised crime, and if so, to what extent? The state thus functioned as the dependent variable and organised criminal groups as the independent variable. The theoretical foundation of this study was located in state-society relations, and specific reference was given to the work of Migdal (1988) and his analysis of state social control, pyramidal and weblike societies. Furthermore, a neo-pluralist view of the state was followed. A conceptualisation of the criminalisation of the state was provided, as the criminalisation of the state was regarded as one possible impact of organised crime on the state. In order to analyse the criminalisation of the state, a framework was constructed from four main avenues of empirical observation. In order to answer the research questions, a case study research design and a predominantly qualitative methodology was selected. As a case, the City of Cape Town was selected and Manenberg, located on the Cape Flats, as the site for the research. A case study research design created the opportunity to describe the context in detail and to connect the micro level of analysis to the macro level; thus, it provided insight on the research topic that enabled the researcher to expand/build theory. The field research process occurred over a period of three months using a triangulation of methods: Key informant interview, small group discussions and observation with three categories of respondents. These three categories included: Community members of Manenberg, organised criminal groups and agents of local government and local governance. In order to set the stage for the empirical analysis, a contextualisation of the dependent and independent variables were provided. It was stated that there is a lack of a universally agreed upon definition of organised crime, and as a result, a conceptualisation of organised crime was generated for this study. It was further argued that the majority of literature treats organised criminal groups and organised criminal gangs as two separate concepts, despite the fact that there are more similarities than differences. Thus, for the purpose of this study, a conclusion was reached that the difference is inconsequential. The development of organised crime in South Africa and an examination of the historical development of the gangs on the Cape Flats were described. With regards to the dependent variable, the context was provided for an analysis of local government in South Africa. The demographical and operational features of the municipal area of the City of Cape Town were explained, with specific reference to safety and security elements. The primary data collected was analysed according to the indicators of social control (compliance, participation and legitimacy), as identified by Migdal (1988). In addition, the framework to analyse the criminalisation of the state at the level of local government was applied on the case study. Based on the analysis, a different system, to what was described by Migdal (1988) in his narrative of a triangle of accommodation was found to be in operation in Manenberg on the Cape Flats. It was confirmed that there is the presence of a weakened state and accordingly, a weblike society, where social control is fragmented between local government and the criminal community. However, in this weblike society a system of local power dynamics exists between the criminal community, social community and local agents of governance, where dyadic collaboration occurs between all three the actors. However, despite the collaboration, the criminalisation of the state does not occur, but rather the statification of the organised criminal community, as it provides goods and service to the social community. The main findings can be summarised as: If a state lacks extensive social control and a rival authority has claimed a level of social control, this will not necessarily lead to the further weakening of the state, as a result of a system of power dynamics in place, where collaboration between the social community, the criminal community and local agents of governance occurs. This system is kept in place by: On-going efforts by the state to maintain (or regain) compliance, participation and legitimacy; corrupt agents of the state (specifically in the security sector); a level of operational ease that exists for the criminal community (and the interweaving of the criminal community in the social community) and a relatively strong society that acknowledges the benefits of criminal activities for the social community, but also recognises the authority and control of the state. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie het ten doel om die uitwerking van 'n plaaslike nie-staatsrolspeler op die rol en gesag van die staat in die plaaslike omgewing te ondersoek. Vervolgens fokus die navorsingsvraag op die impak van 'n plaaslike rolspeler op die verhouding tussen die staat en die samelewing. Die studie fokus op die staat op plaaslike regeringsvlak en op die impak van een spesifieke rolspeler, georganiseerde misdaadgroepe. Staat-samelewing-verhoudinge is dus teen hierdie agtergrond bespreek. Om die studie te rig, is die hoof- en twee ondersteunende navorsingsvrae soos volg gestel: Wat is die impak van georganiseerde misdaad op die sosiale beheer van die staat? Wat is die magsdinamiek tussen die plaaslike regeringsvlak, kriminele agente en die samelewing? Is die staat gekriminaliseer op plaaslike regeringsvlak as gevolg van die resultate van georganiseerde misdaadbedrywighede en, indien wel, in hoe 'n mate? Die staat vorm dus die afhanklike veranderlike en georganiseerde misdaadgroepe die onafhanklike veranderlike. Die teoretiese begronding vir hierdie studie is gevind in staat-samelewing-verhoudinge en die werk van Migdal (1988), spesifiek sy analise van staat-sosiale beheer en piramiede- en webvormige samelewings, word genoem. Verder is 'n neo-pluralistiese beskouing van die staat ingeneem. 'n Konseptualisering van die kriminalisering van die staat word verskaf, aangesien dit voorsien is as een moontlike impak van georganiseerde misdaad op die staat. Ten einde die kriminalisering van die staat te ontleed, is 'n raamwerk opgebou uit vier hoofrigtings van empiriese observasie. 'n Gevallestudie is as navorsingsontwerp gebruik om die navorsingsvrae te beantwoord, met hoofsaaklik 'n kwalitatiewe metodologie. As 'n geval is die Stad Kaapstad gekies, met Manenberg op die Kaapse Vlakte as die terrein vir die navorsing. Die gevallestudie-navorsingsontwerp het die geleentheid geskep om die konteks in detail te beskryf en die mikrovlak-analise met die makrovlak-analise te verbind; derhalwe het dit insig verskaf wat die navorser in staat gestel het om teorie (uit) te bou. Die veldwerkproses het oor 'n tydperk van drie maande deur drie metodes plaasgevind: onderhoude met sleutelinformante, kleingroepbesprekings, en observasies met drie kategorieë respondente. Hierdie drie kategorieë is gemeenskapslede van Manenberg, georganiseerde misdaadgroepe, en agente van plaaslike regering en bestuur. Ten einde die empiriese navorsing op te stel, is 'n kontekstualisering van die afhanklike en onafhanklike veranderlikes verskaf. Dit is gestel dat daar 'n gebrek is aan 'n universeel-aanvaarde definisie van georganiseerde misdaad, en as gevolg hiervan is 'n konseptualisering vir hierdie studie gevorm. Daar is verder geargumenteer dat die meerderheid literatuur georganiseerde misdaadgroepe en georganiseerde misdaadbendes as twee aparte konsepte hanteer, ten spyte daarvan dat hierdie groeperinge veel meer ooreenstem as verskil. Vervolgens is die gevolgtrekking gemaak dat die verskil nie betekenisvol is nie. Die ontwikkeling van georganiseerde misdaad in Suid-Afrika en 'n ontleding van die historiese ontwikkeling van bendes op die Kaapse Vlakte is beskryf. Rakende die afhanklike veranderlike, is die konteks verskaf vir 'n analise van plaaslike regering in Suid-Afrika. Die demografiese en operasionele kenmerke van die munisipale area van die Stad Kaapstad is uiteengesit, met spesifieke verwysing na veiligheid- en sekuriteitselemente. Die primêre ingesamelde data is ontleed aan die hand van die indikatore van sosiale beheer (nakoming, deelname en legitimiteit) soos deur Migdal (1988) gedefinieer. Verder is die raamwerk om die kriminalisering van die staat op plaaslike regeringsvlak te ontleed, op die gevallestudie toegepas. Op grond van die analise is daar bevind dat 'n ander stelsel as wat Migdal (1988) in sy narratief van ‟n driehoek van akkommodasie beskryf het, in Manenberg op die Kaapse Vlakte voorkom. Dit is bevestig dat daar 'n verswakte staat voorkom en, vervolgens, 'n webvormige samelewing, waar sosiale beheer gefragmenteer is tussen die plaaslike regering en die kriminele gemeenskap. In hierdie webvormige samelewing bestaan egter 'n stelsel van plaaslike magsdinamiek tussen die kriminele gemeenskap, die sosiale gemeenskap en plaaslike regeringsagente, waar diadiese medewerking tussen al drie die akteurs voorkom. Ten spyte van hierdie samewerking, kom die kriminalisering van die staat egter nie voor nie, maar eerder 'n verstaatliking van die georganiseerde misdaadgemeenskap, aangesien dit goedere en dienste aan die sosiale gemeenskap verskaf. Die hoofbevindinge kan soos volg saamgevat word: As 'n staat nie uitgebreide sosiale beheer het nie en 'n mededingende gesag het 'n vlak van sosiale beheer opgeëis, sal dit nie noodwendig lei tot die verdere verswakking van die staat nie, as gevolg van 'n stelsel van magsdinamiek wat in plek is waar medewerking tussen die sosiale gemeenskap, die kriminele gemeenskap en plaaslike agente van bestuur voorkom. Hierdie stelsel word in plek gehou deur aaneenlopende pogings deur die staat om nakoming, deelname en legitimiteit te verkry (of terug te kry), korrupte staatsagente (spesifiek in die sekuriteitsektor), 'n vlak van operasionele gemak wat vir die kriminele gemeenskap bestaan (en die vervlegting van kriminele gemeenskap en die sosiale gemeenskap), en 'n relatiewe sterk samelewing wat die voordele van kriminele aktiwiteit vir die sosiale gemeenskap erken, maar so ook die gesag en beheer van die staat.