A study of the reproductive performance of 179 dairy cows during the period from December 1978 through March 1984 was conducted at the Western Kentucky University Farm, Bowling Green, Kentucky. The climatic data showed seasonal variation in temperature as follows: winter 3.10C, spring 15.7°C, summer 23.8°C, and fall 12.0°C. The seasonal humidity was similar for winter (81.2%), spring (83.4%), and fall (85.3%); but for summer it was considerably higher (89.4%). The conception rate varied through all the months but was lowest during the summer months. Seasonal data for conception rate were obtained and the results were as follows: winter 54.1%, spring 46.4%, summer 15.6% and fall 39.0%. Low fertility during summer months was associated with high air temperatures and high relative humidities. The coefficient of correlation for temperature vs. conception was low (-0.15) because there was low fertility in some winter months and in some summer months. The coefficient of correlation for humidity vs. conception was high (-0.65), and the coefficient of determination was 42%. A completely randomized design and analysis were used, resulting in significant differences among seasonal fertility rates but no significant differences among months within seasons. Significant differences were found for the following comparisons: winter vs. spring, summer, and fall; spring vs. winter, summer, and fall; and summer vs. spring, fall, and winter. The total services involved were 546, and the total conceptions obtained were 155--resulting in a service per conception ratio of 3.52. The average number of days open was 177 (79 cows). The average number of days in the calving interval was 457 (63 cows).

Precision dairy monitoring technologies can be used to monitor changes in physiology and behavior associated with transition period postpartum diseases and heat stress. Research Objective One was to evaluate how traditional visual examination, body condition, and locomotion with and without blood, milk, and urine variables and precision dairy monitoring technologies determine variable association with hyperketonemia, metritis, mastitis, hypocalcemia and retained placenta,. This was accomplished by monitoring cows 2 weeks before calving to 3 weeks after calving for any postpartum diseases using daily visual examination and automatically detected variables including activity, milk yield, milk components, lying behavior, feeding behavior, rumination time, and reticulorumen temperature. Deviations in reticulorumen temperature, milk production, eating time, lying time, and activity were detected by precision dairy monitoring technologies among cows with postpartum diseases. Research Objective Two was to determine the association between automatically detected variables and heat stress. This objective was accomplished by monitoring cows under natural ventilation, fans, and fans plus sprinklers for variations under each condition. Changes in physiology and behavior as detected by precision dairy monitoring technologies was associated with postpartum diseases and heat stress. Using precision dairy monitoring technologies and visual examinations may aid producers in identifying postpartum disease and heat stress.

In recent years, economic, social, and environmental factors have encouraged higher forage diets to be fed to dairy cows. Consequently, a better understanding of both the chemical and physical properties of dietary forage fiber is needed. Undigested neutral detergent fiber after 240 hours of fermentation (uNDF240) is the fiber residue remaining after 240 hours of in vitro fermentation and has only recently been defined. Physically effective neutral detergent fiber (peNDF) was defined about two decades ago and is the fraction of dietary fiber with a particle size (i.e., ≥1.18-mm screen) that stimulates chewing behavior, forms the rumen digesta mat, and is resistant to passage from the rumen. To-date, the relationship between these two dietary fiber measurements has not been evaluated. The overall goal of this thesis research was to quantitate the relationship between dietary uNDF240 and peNDF on feed intake, lactational performance, chewing behavior, and the ruminal environment of lactating Holstein dairy cows. The focal study (Chapter 2) investigated the effects of dietary uNDF240 (low or high) and peNDF (low or high) on lactating dairy cows. The four treatments were: 1) low uNDF240, low peNDF (8.8%, 20.1%; LULP; 2) low uNDF240, high peNDF (8.9%, 21.8%; LUHP); 3) high uNDF240, low peNDF (11.4%, 18.6%; HULP); and 4) high uNDF240, high peNDF (11.6%, 22.0%; HUHP). Additionally, a new descriptive term, physically effective uNDF240 (peuNDF240) was calculated as the product of the dietary physical effectiveness factor (pef; % of particles retained on ≥1.18-mm screen with dry sieving) and uNDF240 as a percentage of dry matter (DM). This new descriptive term aimed to integrate the effects of dietary particle size and NDF (in)digestibility. The dietary peuNDF240 concentrations were 5.4% (LULP), 5.8% (LUHP), 5.9% (HULP), and 7.1% (HUHP). The LULP treatment resulted in greater dry matter intake (DMI) and energy corrected milk (ECM), as well as more favorable chewing behavior (i.e., no effect on rumination but less time spent eating) in comparison to the HUHP diet. When comparing the same two treatments, total volatile fatty acid concentration was greater, mean ruminal pH was lower, and NDF turnover rate tended to be greater for the LULP treatment. Milk fat percentage was influenced by dietary uNDF240 with the high uNDF240 diets having an elevated percentage. The LUHP and HULP treatments often did not differ in animal response variables, such as DMI, ECM, mean ruminal pH, and chewing behavior, reflecting their similar dietary peuNDF240 concentration. Importantly, by reducing peNDF of the high uNDF240 treatments, DMI increased to an amount similar to the low uNDF240 treatments. Animal responses were consistently different between the LULP and HUHP treatments as expected: the low uNDF240 diet, chopped more finely, encouraged greater DMI than the high uNDF240 diet chopped coarsely. However, the LUHP and HULP diets with similar peuNDF240 often resulted in similar cow responses, even though the peuNDF240 was obtained differently for each diet. With these diets fed to high-producing cows, it appears that the integration of particle size and indigestibility of fiber using a peuNDF240 measurement is highly related to DMI, ECM yield, chewing behavior, and ruminal environment. In the future, this relationship may prove useful in predicting DMI of lactating dairy cows fed a range of diets differing in uNDF240 and particle size.

An efficient and simple purification procedure for cow brain glutaminase (L- glutamine amidohydrolase, EC 3.5.1.2) is described. The main steps consisted of acetone extraction and French press treatment in the presence of phosphate ions, precipitation of nucleic acids and lipids by 0.08 % protamine·S04 and high speed centrifugation (300,000xg), ammonium sulfate fractionation, and gel filtration on Sepharose 4B first as the low molecular weight and then as the aggregated form. The yield was 22% and the final preparation had a specific activity of 142 μmoles/min/mg. The purification was more than 8000-fold over crude brain homogenate. The enzyme showed one strong and one diffuse band on SDS gel electrophoresis, suggesting that the enzyme was highly purified. Phosphate activated cow brain glutaminase with a sigmoidal concentration dependence. The activation was time dependent, a function of the pretreatment, and was enhanced by high concentrations of protein. The molecular weight of cow brain glutaminase also depended on the nature of the buffer in which it is dissolved. Gel filtration on Sepharose 4B was used to determine the molecular weight. Three forms of glutaminase were observed, one each in tris/acetate, phosphate, and borate/ phosphate buffer. These were interconvertible and have molecular weights of 170,000, 300,000, and >10^6 respectively. It appeared that activation of cow brain glutaminase by phosphate was due to formation of dimers or higher molecular weight polymers.

Mixed regimes are often viewed as inherently less stable and more war prone than fully democratic or autocratic systems due to their low levels of institutionalization. I ask, are certain mixed regimes more or less war prone than other mixed regimes, based on the strength and orientation (more democratic or autocratic) of their political institutions? At ends with previous research, my findings suggest that institutionalization levels play little, if any role in the onset of interstate war.

Over 2 years (Year 1, 2009-2010; Year 2, 2010-2011), two separate experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of winter feeding system (n=3) on beef cow performance, reproductive performance, economics and forage degradability. The three systems (treatments) were grazing pea crop residue (PEA) cv. ‘Performance 40-10’ (Year 1, TDN = 50.2%, CP = 7.3%; Year 2, TDN = 56.9%, CP = 8.9%) in field paddocks, grazing oat crop residue (OAT) cv. ‘Baler’ (Year 1, TDN = 59.1%, CP = 2.9%; Year 2, TDN = 66.9%, CP = 5.3%) in field paddocks, and feeding mixed grass-legume hay in drylot pens (DL) (Year 1, TDN = 61.4%; CP = 8.8%; Year 2, TDN = 52.3%, CP = 12.3%). In the first experiment, 90 dry, pregnant Black Angus cows (Year 1, 629 kg ± 74 kg; Year 2, 665 ± 69 kg) stratified by body weight (BW) and days pregnant were randomly allocated to 1 of the 3 systems. Cows were allocated feed in the field or pen on a 3 d basis and supplemented oat grain daily at 0.4-0.6% BW depending on environmental conditions. Dry matter intake (DMI) was estimated for each system using the herbage weight disappearance method. Cow BW, body condition score (BCS), and rib and rump fat were measured at start and end of trial and cow BW was corrected for conceptus gain based on calving data. When data from the first 20 d were pooled over 2 years, initial cow BW was greater (P < 0.01) for the DL and OAT cows compared to the PEA cows and final cow BW was different (P < 0.01) between all 3 winter feeding systems. The change in BW was also greater (P < 0.01) for DL cows compared to cows on the OAT and PEA treatments. Analysis of the first 20 d of Year 1 study period and the total Year 2 study period, showed a significant (P < 0.01) year by treatment interaction for final BW and BW change. The differences (P < 0.01) in initial BW, final BW and BW change between the first 20 d of Year 1 study period and the total Year 2 study period (20 d) suggest feed quality, animal preference and weather conditions may cause difficulties when grazing residues in winter grazing systems. Analysis of the entire trial period in Year 1 (62 d) indicates differences (P < 0.01) for final BW and BW change between cows on all three systems. The change in rib and rump fat was also different (P < 0.01) between cows in all 3 systems. In Year 2 (20 d), initial BW, final BW and BW change were different (P < 0.01) between DL and PEA cows, and between (P < 0.01) OAT and PEA cows. No difference (P > 0.05) was found for cow rib and rump fat in Year 2 and no difference (P > 0.05) was found for BCS in either Year 1 or Year 2 for cows managed in all 3 systems. Differences (P < 0.05) were observed for calving rate and calf birth weight between the DL and OAT system cows, but not between (P > 0.05) cows managed in the DL and PEA or OAT and PEA systems. Costs per cow per day were $1.22, $1.01 and $2.77 for PEA, OAT and DL systems in Year 1, respectively. In Year 2, cow costs per day were $1.59, $1.44 and $1.84 for PEA, OAT and DL systems, respectively. In experiment 2, three ruminally cannulated, dry Holstein cows were fed a silage based total mixed ration (TMR) of 22 kg barley silage, 7 kg chopped alfalfa hay and 1 kg energy supplement (DAC-485). In-situ degradability was studied to determine the extent of degradation of pea, oat and grass-legume hay collected at start (SOT) and end of test (EOT) in experiment one. Rate of degradation (Kd) of DM was greater (P < 0.01) for PEA EOT compared to HAY, OAT SOT and OAT EOT. Dry matter rate of degradation for PEA SOT was greater (P < 0.05) compared to OAT SOT and OAT EOT. The effectively degradable fraction of CP was greater (P = 0.03) for HAY compared to PEA EOT. The ruminally undegradable fraction of CP was greater (P = 0.03) for PEA EOT compared to HAY. Acid detergent fiber rate of degradation (Kd) was greater (P = 0.01) for PEA EOT compared to HAY, OAT SOT and OAT EOT. Acid detergent fiber rate of degradation for PEA SOT was greater (P < 0.05) compared to OAT SOT and OAT EOT. No differences (P > 0.05) were observed between either OAT SOT and OAT EOT or PEA SOT and PEA EOT for S, D, U, ED or RU suggesting that weathering did not have an effect on the degradability of the forages. The results of these experiments show that it is possible to maintain cow BW through the winter months in Western Canada by grazing oat crop residues, which have the potential to reduce winter feeding costs.

Data were analyzed on 2 to 6 yr old cows to evaluate sire and family effects. Cows were produced in the McGregor Genomics Project from 13 embryo transfer (ET) full sib families (n = 188, F2 Nellore-Angus (NA)) and 4 half sib natural service (NS) families (n = 114, out of 1/2 Brahman 1/2 British dams) from the same 4 F1 NA sires. The ET and NS cows were analyzed separately and together as paternal half sibs (PHS). Daughters of bull 437J had the highest calving rate and weaning rate; daughters of 551G were the lowest in ET, and daughters of 297J were the lowest in NS. Calves out of daughters of 551G were the heaviest at birth; those from of daughters of 437J were the lightest in NS and PHS. Calves out of daughters of 297J were the heaviest at weaning in ET and PHS, and those from daughters of 432H were the lightest. Calves from daughters of 297J and 437J gained the most weight and those from daughters of 432H gained the least. Daughters of 297J and 551G had longer and larger diameter teats and lower udder support scores (more pendulous) than daughters of 432H and 437J. Daughters of 437J had the highest body condition score (BCS); daughters of 551G were the lowest in ET and NS. Calves from daughters of 297J had the highest BCS at weaning. Those out of daughters of 551G had the lightest WWT, those out of daughters of 437J were the heaviest in NS and PHS, and those out of daughters of 432H were the heaviest in ET. Daughters of 437J and 551G scored the highest for disposition (least docile) in ET and PHS, and daughters of 432H were lowest. The regression of WWT on weaning age was 0.82 plus/minus 0.07 in ET, 0.71 plus/minus 0.08 in NS, and 0.78 plus/minus 0.05 kg/d in PHS. There appears to be sufficient variation within and between these full sib and half sib families for use in QTL analysis for major genes affecting cow productivity in NA crosses.

Sire and family effects were evaluated for calf growth, udder and teat conformation, and reproduction traits in 2- to 4- yr-old cows from the McGregor Genomics Project. Cows were produced by embryo transfer (ET) and natural service (NS) from the same 4 F1 Nellore-Angus sires, and were analyzed separately. Sire of cow was significant for calf birth weight (P = 0.014) among ET cows, but not NS cows. Among NS families, calves from cows out of Brahman-Hereford dams were 2.0 kg heavier (P = 0.064) at birth than calves from cows out of Brahman-Angus dams. Sire of cow accounted for variation in weaning weight (P = 0.006) and preweaning ADG (P = 0.005) of calves from ET dams, but not NS dams. Family nested within sire also accounted for variation (P = 0.061) in weaning weights of calves from ET dams. Sire of cow was significant for average teat length in ET (P < 0.001) and NS (P = 0.013) cows. Sire of cow was significant for average teat diameter (P = 0.022) among NS cows. Sire of cow also affected udder support score (P = 0.002), cow disposition at calf birth (P = 0.002), and cow weight at weaning (P = 0.045) in ET cows. Family and cow age also accounted for variation in cow disposition at calf birth (P = 0.015, P = 0.041, respectively) and cow weight at weaning (P = 0.001, P < .001, respectively) among ET cows. Calf year of birth also affected (P < .001) cow weight at weaning among ET cows. For NS dams, calf year of birth (P = 0.012), cow age (P < .001), and parity nested within cow age (P = 0.005) affected cow weight at weaning. Although reproduction data were not formally analyzed, there appear to be substantial differences for calving rate and average calving date among these cow families. Data from this project will be used for identification of genetic markers for these cow productivity traits.

En ny spelgenre har ökat i popularitet de senaste fem åren. En spelgenre som faller utanför den klassiska definitionen av spel. En spelgenre vid namn ”Idle Games”. Föreliggande studie handlar om vilka element i dessa spel som får spelaren att fortsätta spela och hur elementen kan analyseras med hjälp av MDA och AARRR ramverken. Data har samlats in från tre populära Idle Games vid namn Cookie Clicker, Clicker Heroes och AdVenture Capatalist. En enkät har också skickats till spelarna av dessa spel för att få en uppfattning om varför spelen är populära. Resultaten har sedan analyserats med olika speldesignteorier för att undersöka vilka spelmekaniker som skapar lusten att spela och varför dessa spel är populära. / A new game genre has seen increased popularity during the last five years. A game genre that falls outside the classic definition of games. A game genre with the name of “Idle Games”. This study is all about which elements in these games create the drive for the player to continue playing and how the elements can be analyzed with the help of MDA and AARRR frameworks. Data have been collected from three popular idle games with the names of Cookie clicker, Clicker Heros and AdVenture Capatalist. A survey has also been sent to the players of these games in order to get better knowledge of why these games are popular. The result has then been analyzed with different design theories in order to examine which game mechanics create the feel to play and why.

Three experiments were conducted for this dissertation with the goals to; 1) determine conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) effects on net-energy balance (EBAL) and milk production parameters during periods of nutrient/energy stress, and 2) investigate temporal CLA effects on mammary lipogenic gene expression. Study one was designed to determine if abomasal CLA infusion could reduce milk fat synthesis and partition nutrients towards alternative milk components in feed restricted rotationally grazed dairy cows. Data indicate abomasally-infusing CLA reduced milk fat synthesis in nutrient restricted grazing dairy cows and improved calculated EBAL and milk protein production. Another period of transitory stress experienced by the lactating dairy cow is immediately postpartum and study two objectives were to feed rumen inert-CLA to evoke milk fat depression (MFD) and investigate production and bioenergetic parameters. Data indicated a high CLA dose (3 x greater than needed in established lactation) inhibited milk fat synthesis immediately postpartum and improved calculated EBAL in grazing dairy cows. A curvilinear relationship existed between the severity of CLA-induced MFD and milk yield response. Moderate CLA-induced MFD (<~35%) tended to increase milk yield whereas severe MFD (>~35%) diminished this response. Previous research speculated that extensive MFD might decrease Δ⁹-desaturase (stearoyl CoA desaturase; SCD) and subsequent membrane fluidity to such an extent as to adversely affect cellular functions and inhibit milk secretion, thus decreasing milk yield. However, SCD inhibition was temporally independent in the present study, offering little support for the aforementioned theory. Mammary sensitivity to CLA increased as lactation progressed and previous speculations attributed this to reduced contribution of de novo synthesised fatty acids or increased competition from circulating non-esterified fatty acids immediately postpartum. However, data indicate that de novo fatty acids and milk fat trans-10, cis-12 CLA content don’t appreciably change during early lactation, (even though MFD became more severe) offering little support for either hypothesis. Study three investigated the effects of intravenous CLA infusion on temporal expression of mammary lipogenic genes to determine if trans-10, cis-12 CLA down regulates expression of a key gene (i.e. acetyl CoA carboxylase, ACC, the rate limiting enzyme in de novo fatty acid synthesis) and reduction in other mammary lipid synthesis genes is due to lack of substrate (i.e. malonyl CoA), or an alternative indirect mechanism. Data indicated however, that mammary lipogenic genes (ACC, fatty acid synthetase and SCD) followed a similar temporal pattern, providing more support for a global regulator (i.e. sterol regulatory element binding protein-1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ or nuclear factor- κB) rather than a specific key enzyme effect.