Allt fler föräldrar vill ha samhällets hjälp med att få hem sitt barn efter ett umgänge eller växelvis boende med den andra föräldern. Det är även allt fler som vänder sig till Utrikesdepartementet för att få hjälp med att få hem sitt barn som förts utom landet. Brottet egenmäktighet med barn anmäls i allt högre grad men antalet personer som ställs till ansvar för brottet är under åren relativt konstant. Detta arbete syftar till att tydliggöra under vilka förutsättningar en förälder eller annan kan ställas till ansvar för brottet egenmäktighet med barn samt vilket skydd barn kan ges mot att egenmäktigt skiljas från sin vårdnadshavare eller olovligt föras bort. Området är relativt outforskat och arbetet bygger främst på studier av lag, förarbeten och praxis. I arbetets inledande skede har även en åklagare och en advokat intervjuats i frågan. Brottet egenmäktighet med barn utgör endast en del av det skydd samhället ger barn mot egenmäktighet och olovligt bortförande. Arbetet ger även en kort redogörelse för dessa kringliggande regler. Arbetets fokus ligger på brottet egenmäktighet med barn. Av vad som framkommit är det område där rättsregeln 7:4 BrB är tillämplig relativt begränsat. Den största avgränsningen görs då åklagaren inte har någon åtalsplikt. Åtal får endast väckas om det är påkallat ur allmän synpunkt. Bakgrunden är att det från lagstiftarens sida finns en oro att otillbörliga åtal kan leda till att angivelse används i syfte att trakassera och innebära opåkallade ingripanden i den privata sfären. Mot bakgrund av Sveriges ratificering av barnkonventionen med det skydd som denna konvention ger både vad gäller barns rätt att komma till tals och barns rätt att få skydd mot olovligt bortförande kan det finnas anledning att se över lagstiftningen rörande egenmäktighet med barn. Sedan straffbestämmelsen om egenmäktighet infördes har vårdnadsinstitutet förändrats i flera avseende vilket kan ge ytterligare anledning till en översyn av bestämmelsen.

The purpose of this research is to examine the effectiveness of the Bill C-45 amendments to the Criminal Code in addressing workplace fatality incidents. This research involved both qualitative and quantitative research and utilized two research methods. The first method involved a secondary analysis of thirty-eight Incident Investigation Reports completed by WorkSafeBC. These were supplemented with additional case information about these incidents provided via the Freedom of Information offices in British Columbia. The second method utilized nine semi-structured interviews with respondents in the field of occupational health and safety and corporate criminality who were familiar with the Bill C-45 amendments. The study found that employers could be found liable in half of the cases examined; that there appeared to be unique characteristics of British Columbia that effect the use of criminal charges; that the criminal law is not very effective in cases of criminal negligence for workplace fatality; and that improvements could be made to the criminal law.

The main objective of this thesis is to present an analysis of the issue of hate crimes and the manner in which the Canadian criminal justice system is currently addressing this problem. In doing so, certain inherent concerns with the current Canadian criminal legislative response to hate crimes will be highlighted and discussed in detail. / More precisely, the introduction of how recent Canadian criminal legislation has dealt with hate crimes will serve as the basis for the consideration of two of the main areas of concern as they relate to the effective application of hate crime legislation, namely the areas of prosecutorial discretion and evidentiary burden. The detailed survey of these two areas will provide the reader with a greater understanding of the dynamics behind the factors that currently hinder the potential effectiveness of hate crime legislation in Canada and will ultimately allow for the consideration of possible solutions.

I denna examensuppsats har jag granskat bestämmelsen om människohandel i 4 kap. 1 a § brottsbalken (1962:700) (BrB) samt undersökt vilket eller vilka rekvisit i lag­stift­ning­en som medför särskilda pro­blem för dess tolkning och tillämpning. Syftet med upp­satsen har varit att presentera förslag på hur problemen kan lösas genom att ta fram ett lag­förslag med de ändringar som jag anser är nöd­vän­di­ga för att få en mer lättil­lämpad lag­­stiftning. Syftet har även varit att undersöka hur dessa än­dring­ar bör göras för att säker­ställa att bestämmelsen överensstämmer med de ända­mål som Sverige åta­git genom ett antal inter­natio­n­ella instrument. Lagförslaget presenteras i en bilaga nedan (Bilaga A). Utifrån det ovan beskrivna syftet är uppsatsen upplägg enligt följande. I upp­sats­ens första kapitel presenteras en bakgrund samt en problemformulering där jag redogjort kort för bestämmelsen om människo­handel i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB samt för de problem som tidi­gare uppmärksammats vad gäller tolkningen och tillämpningen av be­stäm­melsen. Det handlar om lagstiftningens utformning och hur den bidrar till att be­stäm­melsen är så pass svårtillämpad att det finns en risk att den inte lever upp till de ändamål som kom­mer till uttryck i de inter­na­tion­ella instrument som Sverige å­ta­git. Det kan även medföra att lag­stiftningen uppfattas i termer av ”en vingklippt ängel”, vilket innebär att lag­stif­ta­rens ambitioner om att kunna bekämpa män­nisko­handel på ett effektivt sätt inte kan till­godo­ses till följd av de brister som den nuvarande utformningen bidrar till. Utöver detta pre­sen­teras även metodvalet för uppsatsen som är en rättsdogmatisk metod utifrån ett straff­­­rättsligt perspektiv. I kapitlet har jag även redogjort för de avgränsningar som gjorts för upp­sats­ens fram­ställning samt presenterat en disposition för de övriga kapitlen i uppsatsen. I uppsatsen andra kapitel följer en redogörelse för människohandelns utbredning både inom Sverige samt på ett globalt plan, där fokus varit riktat mot att visa på de kännetecken som är typiska för människohandelsbrott. Av det material som redovisats i kapitlet framgår att människohandel är en omfattande brottslighet som tar sig uttryck på många olika sätt. Det som är gemensamt för alla former av människo­handel är att det är fråga om brottsoffer som på något sätt tvingats in en form av exploaterande, vilket kan innebära allt från att prostitution, tvångsarbete, kriminalitet eller tiggeri. I uppsatsen tredje kapitel redovisas gällande rätt i förhållande till bestämmelsen i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB med fokus på såväl internationell som nationell rätt. Det internationella instrument som är centralt för hur en nationell bestämmelse mot människohandel bör utformas är det s.k. Palermo­­proto­kollet, av vilket det bl.a. framgår vilken definition av människohandel samt vilka ändamål som ska gälla för utformningen av en nationell lagstiftning. Utöver de internationella instrument som presenterats i kapitlet har jag även redogjort för den svenska bestämmelsen om människohandel i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB samt för de tre momenten om handelsåtgärder, otillbörliga medel och exploa­te­rings­syfte som utgör huvud­re­kvi­si­t­en i lagstiftningen. I kapitlet har jag också redo­gjort för de bestämmelser som är näraliggande 4 kap. 1 a § BrB, bl.a. om koppleri­ i 6 kap. 12 § BrB samt om människo­smuggling i 20 kap. 8-9 §§ ut­län­nings­lagen (2005:716) (UtlL). I uppsatsen fjärde kapitel följer en redogörelse för tolkningen och tillämpningen av 4 kap. 1 a § BrB, där jag granskat ett urval av de rättsfall som tillkommit efter att bestäm­mel­s­en om människohandel i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB revideras 2010. Syftet med detta är att under­­söka vilket eller vilka rekvisit i lagstiftningen som innebär svårigheter för tolkningen och tillämpningen av bestämmelsen. Utifrån detta material har det varit möj­ligt att dra vissa slutsatser som sedan kommit att utgöra underlag för diskussionsdelen i det nästkommande kapitlet. Slutligen i uppsatsen femte kapitel förs en diskussion utifrån det material som pre­sen­terats i de övriga kapitlen. En sammanfattning av diskussionsdelen är att jag funnit att en särskild översyn krävs för två av de tre momenten. Det handlar om re­kvi­si­t­et om otillbörliga medel samt det s.k. exploateringssyftet. Utifrån detta har jag sedan fört en diskussion om vilka ändringar som jag anser är nödvändiga samt hur dessa bör göras för att de ovan nämnda ändamålen ska efterlevas på ett adekvat sätt. Mitt förslag är att re­kvi­sitet om de otillbörliga medlen bör förtydligas och att det därmed är en god idé att an­passa rekvisitet ytterligare efter Palermoprotokollets definition av vad som ut­gör ett sådant medel. Utöver detta anser jag även att exploateringssyftet bör revideras genom att låta införa ett generellt uppsåtsrekvisit i lagstiftningen. Syftet med detta är att under­lät­ta för uppsåtsbedömningen vid prövningen av 4 kap. 1 a § BrB. Kapitlet avslutas sedan med övriga kommentarer som jag ansett vara relevanta för diskussionsdelen. / In the following Master’s Thesis, I have made an examination on the Swedish re­gu­la­tion on human trafficking in Chapter 4 Section 1 of the Swedish Penal Code (1962:700) (BrB) and scrutinized which of the necessary prerequisites within the regulation that in­du­ces specific problems for its judicial interpretation and the adjudication process. The purpose for the Master’s Thesis has been to present a bill with the proper changes, which I believe are necessary to gain a better administration of the law. The purpose of the Master’s Thesis has also been to examine how the amendment can alter a more appro­priate use so that it corresponds with the commitments that Sweden has signed through different international treaties. The bill is presented in Swedish in an appendix below (Bilaga A).             In the first chapter of the Master’s Thesis, I present a background of the regulation and the problems that have come to be associated with its judicial interpretation and adju­dication process. The central issue regarding the two has to do with the design of the regulation, leading to difficulties with the administration of the law. This could lead to the risk of not fulfilling the commitments within the international treaties that Sweden has signed. It could even mean that the regulation only is viewed on as an “angel without wings”, meaning that the will and ambition of the legislator on comba­ting human trafficking in an effective way is undermined due to the flaws of the regulation.             In the second chapter, I have presented the recent findings from different reports and in­vestigations on human trafficking, both in Sweden but also on a global perspective. From these findings, it has been shown that human trafficking is a comprehensive cri­mi­nality that expresses itself in many ways. The common trait of all forms of human traffic­king is that the victims of crime are somehow forced to comply in some form of ex­ploitation. The exploitation can include everything from prostitution, forced labor, parti­cipation in criminal acts or mendicancy.             In the Master’s thesis’ third chapter, the current applicable law is presented in com­parison with the regulation in Chapter 4 Section 1 of the Swedish Penal Code, focusing on both the international commitments that Sweden has signed and national law. The central international treaty that has given most impact on how the national regulations should be designed is the so-called Palermo Protocol. The Protocol contains both a global definition of what is to be recognized as human trafficking as well as which purposes that a national law should conform in order to fulfill an appropriate inter­pretation of the protocol. Other than mentioned above, the chapter contains a thorough pre­sentation on the regulation in Chapter 4 Section 1 of the Swedish Penal Code and its main necessary prerequisites, actions, improper means and purpose of exploitation, as well as a presentations of the regulations that are relevant when comparing the re­gulation on human trafficking, such as the regulation on procuration in Chapter 6 Section 12 of the Swedish Penal Code and the regulations on trafficking in persons in Chapter 20 Section 8 and Section 9 of the Swedish Aliens Act (2005:716) (UtlL).             In the forth chapter, I have examined some of the decisions that have been after the last review of the regulation on human trafficking in 2010. The purpose of this exa­mi­nation has been to scrutinize which of the main necessary prerequisites that have caused bigger or minor difficulties for the judicial interpretation and the adjudication process of the law.          In the final chapter, a discussion is brought up based upon the material that has been pre­sented in chapters above. A summary on what my conclusions are is that I believe that a review is necessary on two of the three main necessary prerequisites, mainly the im­proper means and the purpose of exploitation. Based on these conclusions, I have con­tinued bringing up a discussion on what changes that I believe are crucial, as well as how these changes should be done so that the regulation is in accordance with the above-mentioned commitments. In my opinion, the necessary prerequisite on improper means needs to be more properly defined, meaning that it should be designed more in accord­ance with the Palermo Protocol than it is today. Also regarding the prerequisite on purpose of exploitation, it is my belief that a general intention requisite should be inserted within the regulation, with the purpose of facilitating for the judicial review of the law. The chapter finishes of with a section of other remarks that I find beneficial for the discussion.

Abstract It is often stated that plea-bargaining is an indispensable part of a fair and efficient criminal justice system. By observing sentencing hearings in the Provincial Court of Manitoba this thesis shows that some form of plea bargaining is involved in a substantial majority of cases. Almost half of these plea bargained matters resulted in joint recommendations on sentence. However, the vast majority of these joint recommendations did not involve a true plea bargain. In this limited study, it was observed that the presiding judge accepted all joint recommendations as presented by counsel. One of the goals of plea bargaining is to arrive at joint recommendations on sentence. Though lawyers on both sides of the courtroom may perceive an advantage to joint recommendations, for the accused these advantages may be illusory. Judges routinely accept joint recommendations despite not being the progeny of true plea bargains involving a quid pro quo. This research suggests that the vast majority of joint recommendations are born of cultural expedience rather than as a result of true plea bargains. These cultural joint recommendations encroach significantly on the judicial function and may erode public confidence in the administration of justice. The continued proliferation of cultural joint recommendations may further entrench a culture of expedience in our criminal justice system and could potentially lead to higher sentences for offenders.

The purpose of this research is to examine the effectiveness of the Bill C-45 amendments to the Criminal Code in addressing workplace fatality incidents. This research involved both qualitative and quantitative research and utilized two research methods. The first method involved a secondary analysis of thirty-eight Incident Investigation Reports completed by WorkSafeBC. These were supplemented with additional case information about these incidents provided via the Freedom of Information offices in British Columbia. The second method utilized nine semi-structured interviews with respondents in the field of occupational health and safety and corporate criminality who were familiar with the Bill C-45 amendments. The study found that employers could be found liable in half of the cases examined; that there appeared to be unique characteristics of British Columbia that effect the use of criminal charges; that the criminal law is not very effective in cases of criminal negligence for workplace fatality; and that improvements could be made to the criminal law.

Reducing juvenile delinquency is an important issue because today’s juvenile population will become the next generation of contributing members to society. Therefore, the juvenile justice system is faced with the challenge of creating effective methods of decreasing delinquency and providing necessary treatment to juvenile offenders. Legislators implemented juvenile transfer to adult criminal court with the intent of increasing punishments in order to deter future juvenile crime and to hold juvenile offenders accountable for their criminal behavior. This paper shows why juvenile transfer is not an effective method in addressing the issues of juvenile delinquency by looking at several studies that analyze the negative effects of transfer in increasing recidivism and serious violent crimes. Furthermore, research shows that juvenile transfer undermines the criminal culpability of juvenile offenders who are undoubtedly not as mature and psychosocially developed as adult offenders. This implies that the juvenile justice system is faced with the ongoing challenge of finding new ways to address juvenile delinquency. This paper suggests that the juvenile justice system should return to an individualized rehabilitative system that focuses on the needs of individual offenders in providing appropriate treatment and services that will allow the juvenile to re-integrate back into the community.

The power to inflict the death penalty formed a vital part of the disciplinary process in all the major armies during the First World War. Yet serious historians have neglected the subject. This thesis addresses the topic in a critical manner and challenges the view that executions were arbitrary, reflecting a distant and uncaring High Command. Analysis of military and criminal law in Europe and the United States establishes a comparative framework from which to proceed. Changing ideas about discipline and duty as the war impacted on both the military and British society are assessed. The concept of morale - so important to military commanders during the war - is evaluated in the context of changing demands on the army as it adjusted to the absorption of 'citizen soldiers' and conscripts as well as disappointment on the battlefield. Differences between Regular, Territorial and 'New Army' formations are assessed. So too is the impact of the big offensives such as the Battle of the S o m e in 1916. Finally, three divisions (one Regular, one Territorial, and one 'New Army') are subjected to detailed analysis from their initial deployment on the Western Front then on to the Italian Front where a different disciplinary approach can be detected. The central theme of the thesis is that whilst some British commanders adopted a progressive approach to discipline most clung to traditional ideas of deterrence. In this they were encouraged by the very nature of British military law which differed from continental and American models in vital areas. Driven by the fear of a collapse in discipline amongst their 'citizen soldiers' some commanders took refuge in traditional methods of punishment to maintain what they termed 'fighting spirit'. This, however, altered at the end of 1917 when traditional approaches gave way to new forms of management.

This thesis examines criminal law in the context of Australian indigenous–settler relations. Through the jurisprudence of Justice Kriewaldt in the Northern Territory, it explores the relationship between the policy of assimilation and the application of the criminal law to Aboriginal people. Justice Kriewaldt was the sole judge of the Northern Territory Supreme Court during the 1950s. This was an important period in Australian history when the assimilation policy was at its highpoint. The thesis focuses on three areas of criminal justice—provocation, sentencing and alcohol consumption regulation. Both for Justice Kriewaldt and, in contemporary times, these areas were and continue to be of particular relevance to Aboriginal people confronting the criminal justice system. The thesis demonstrates that Justice Kriewaldt’s approach in these areas was informed by his support for the assimilation policy. It is argued that Justice Kriewaldt generally understood Aboriginal people to be uncivilised and that he applied the criminal law to assist in civilising Aboriginal people so that they could become assimilated. / This thesis also explores how Justice Kriewaldt’s jurisprudence has pervaded current approaches to dealing with the interaction between Aboriginal people and the criminal law. The thesis argues that although echoes of Kriewaldt’s 1950s approach are persistent within contemporary applications of the criminal law to Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory, there have also been shifts in approach. It is contended that Aboriginal people are increasingly understood to be culturally devastated and sick, and that contemporary criminal law frequently aims to restore and repair Aboriginal people to their communities, rather than to assimilate Aboriginal people. It is argued that this approach has opened up a space for Aboriginal people to become more involved in the application of criminal justice and, from this involvement, a form of weak legal pluralism has emerged.

Diss. Stockholm : Stockholms universitet, 2006.