Etexilato de dabigatrana (DAB) é um pró-fármaco da dabigatrana disponível para administração oral. DAB é um inibidor direto da trombina, desenvolvido para prevenção de acidente vascular cerebral e embolia sistêmica em pacientes com fibrilação atrial e para a prevenção de eventos tromboembólicos em pacientes que se submeteram à cirurgia de artroplastia total de joelho e de quadril. Atualmente, não há métodos publicados para a análise qualitativa e quantitativa e estudos de estabilidade de DAB em cápsulas. Portanto, inicialmente, a caracterização da substância química de referência foi realizada por espectrometria de massas (EM), espectroscopia de absorção no infravermelho, espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear de 1H e calorimetria exploratória diferencial. Os métodos por cromatografia em camada delgada, CLAE utilizando detectores UV, CAD e EM foram usados para identificar o fármaco nas cápsulas. Na sequência, foram desenvolvidos métodos empregando a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) com detector ultravioleta (CLAE-UV) e detector aerossol carregado (CLAECAD) para a quantificação de DAB em cápsulas. Os mesmos foram validados, avaliando-se parâmetros como especificidade, linearidade, precisão, exatidão, robustez e limites de detecção e quantificação. Os métodos foram comparados estatisticamente por ANOVA e nenhuma diferença estatisticamente significante foi encontrada entre os mesmos. O estudo de estabilidade de DAB frente à degradação térmica foi investigado. Através dos métodos por CLAE-UV e CLAE-EM pode-se propor a identidade dos produtos de degradação formados, sem processo de isolamento ou purificação. Adicionalmente, a cinética de degradação do DAB e a citotoxicidade das amostras degradadas também foram estudadas. O estudo de cinética de degradação térmica apresentou cinética de primeira ordem (R2 = 0,9900). Além disso, nenhuma evidência de citotoxicidade in vitro em estudo utilizando células mononucleares humanas foi observada. Desse modo estabeleceram-se procedimentos que podem ser aplicados para aprimorar o controle de qualidade, contribuindo para assegurar a eficácia terapêutica de produtos à base de DAB. / Dabigatran etexilate (DAB) is an orally available prodrug of dabigatran. DAB is a direct thrombin inhibitor, developed for stroke and systemic embolism prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation and prevention of venous thromboembolic events in patients who have undergone elective total hip replacement or total knee replacement surgery. Currently, there are no methods published for the qualitative and quantitative analysis and stability study of DAB in capsules. Thus, initially, the characterization of the chemical reference substance was performed by mass spectrometry (MS), infrared spectroscopy, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and differencial scanning calorimetry. The methods by thin-layer chromatography, LC using UV and CAD detector and LC-MS were used to identify the drug in capsule. High performance liquid chromatographic (LC) methods were developed for the assessment of dabigatran etexilate (DAB) in capsules with ultraviolet detector (LC-UV) and charged aerosol detector (LC-CAD). They were validated by evaluating parameters such as specificity, linearity, precision, accuracy, robustness and limits of detection and quantitation. The methods were compared statistically by ANOVA and no statistic difference was found between them. The stability study of DAB under thermal condition was investigated. The degradation products formed were analyzed by LC-UV and LC-MS methods and it’s identify could be suggested, without isolation or purification process. Additionally, the thermal degradation kinetic of DAB and the cytotoxicity of the degraded samples were also studied. The kinetics results could be best described as first-order process (R2 = 0.9900). No evidence of cytotoxicity in human mononuclear cell was observed for drugs degraded samples. So, procedures which can be applied to improve the quality control and contribute to ensure the therapeutic efficacy of products containing DAB.

BACKGROUND:Anticoagulation with vitamin K antagonists such as warfarin has historically been used for the long term management of patients with thromboembolic disease. However, these agents have a slow onset of action which requires bridging therapy with heparin and its analogues, which are available only in parenteral route. To overcome these limitations, new oral anticoagulants such as factor Xa inhibitors and direct thrombin inhibitors have been developed. The aim of this article is to systematically review the phase 3 clinical trials of new oral anticoagulants in common medical conditions.METHODS:We searched PubMed (Medline) from January 2007 to February 2013 using "Oral anticoagulants", "New oral anticoagulants", "Randomized controlled trial", "Novel anticoagulants", "Apixaban", "Rivaroxaban", "Edoxaban", "Dabigatran etexilate", "Dabigatran" and a combination of the above terms. The available evidence from the phase 3 RCTs was summarized on the basis of individual drug and the medical conditions categorized into "atrial fibrillation", "acute coronary syndrome", "orthopedic surgery", "venous thromboembolism" and "medically ill patients".RESULTS:Apixaban, rivaroxaban and dabigatran have been found to be either non-inferior or superior to enoxaparin in prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in knee and hip replacement with similar bleeding risk, superior to warfarin for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation with significant reduction in the risk of major bleeding, non-inferior to aspirin for reducing cardiovascular death and stroke in acute coronary syndrome with significant increase in the risk of major bleed. Rivaroxaban and dabigatran are also superior to the conventional agents in the management of symptomatic venous thromboembolism. However, compared to enoxaparin, apixaban and rivaroxaban use lead to significantly increased bleeding risk in medically ill patients. Additional studies evaluating the specific reversal agents of these new drugs for the management of life-threatening bleeding or other adverse effects are necessary.CONCLUSION:Considering their pharmacological properties, their efficacy and bleeding complications, the new oral agents offer a net favourable clinical profile in orthopedic surgery, atrial fibrillation, acute coronary syndrome and increase the risk of bleeding in critically ill patients. Further studies are necessary to determine the long term safety and to identify the specific reversal agents of these new drugs.

L’évaluation de la bioéquivalence (BE) de formulations génériques (Test) et de marques commerciales (Référence) du dabigatran représente un défi de taille pour les sociétés pharmaceutiques en raison de la grande variabilité intra-individuelle et de la puissante relation concentration-effet du médicament. Soutenu par l'approche de modélisation pharmacocinétique de population (pop-PK), ce projet examine le potentiel d'évaluer la BE, avec des résultats comparables au paradigme actuel de BE, en utilisant un nombre réduit d'échantillons requis. Une étude de BE portant sur deux formulations de dabigatran (Test et Référence), comprenant 16 sujets et incluant 640 concentrations plasmatiques a été utilisée rétrospectivement pour l'analyse pop-PK. Un modèle pop-PK a été développé pour chaque formulation en suivant les techniques de modélisation standards. Des scénarios d'échantillonnage comportant un ensemble décroissant de prélèvements ont été sélectionnés selon une stratégie progressive et prudente basée sur les propriétés pharmacocinétiques (PK) connues du dabigatran ainsi que de connaissances cliniques acquises. Les modèles pop-PK Test et Référence ont été ajustés à chacun des scénarios d'échantillonnage réduits et leurs profils PK ont été simulés. Ensuite, des tests de BE ont été effectués pour identifier le scénario préservant les conclusions BE obtenues à partir du jeu de données d'origine tout en incluant le nombre minimal de prélèvements. Un modèle à deux compartiments avec élimination de premier ordre et absorption retardée décrivait le mieux les données de concentration plasmatique du dabigatran. Le sexe a été identifié en tant que covariable significative pour la biodisponibilité. Pour les scénarios d'échantillonnage réduit, tous les profils de PK simulés étaient similaires et robustes en termes de valeurs de paramètres PK et de courbes de concentrations, à l'exception des valeurs de Cmax. Les résultats ont également prouvé que le verdict de BE pouvait être maintenu jusqu'à un scénario d'échantillonnage réduit de cinq prélèvements en utilisant les normes et critères de BE réglementaires en vigueur. L’approche de modélisation pop-PK pourrait réduire le nombre d’échantillons utilisés pour l’évaluation de la BE du dabigatran, diminuant donc les coûts des futurs essais de BE cliniques en plus de représenter un bénéfice pour les participants de l’étude. / The bioequivalence (BE) assessment of generic (Test) and brand name (Reference) formulations of dabigatran, a drug with a steep exposure-response relationship exhibiting very high pharmacokinetic (PK) variability, represents an expensive challenge for pharmaceutical companies. Supported by the modeling approach of population pharmacokinetics (pop-PK), the present study investigates the potential of assessing with results comparable to the current BE paradigm BE using a reduced required number of samples. A BE study of two formulations of dabigatran (Test and Reference), comprising 16 subjects and including 640 plasma concentrations, was used retrospectively for the pop-PK analysis. Using standard modeling techniques, a pop-PK model was accordingly developed for each formulation. Sampling scenarios with reduced sampling time points were selected in a progressive and cautious strategy based on dabigatran’s known PK properties and clinical knowledge. The developed pop-PK model of the Reference and Test formulations were refitted on each reduced sampling dataset. All these models were simulated to generate virtual PK profiles for BE purpose. Then, following the standard BE test procedure, the task concluded by identifying the scenario preserving BE conclusions obtained from the original dataset, while including the minimum number of samples. A two-compartment model with first order elimination and a lagged absorption best described the plasma concentration data for dabigatran, and sex was identified as a significant covariate for bioavailability. For the reduced sampling scenarios, all simulated PK profiles were similar to the PK profile generated from the complete sampling in terms of PK parameters values and robustness, except for the Cmax values. The results also proved that the BE verdict could be maintained with a reduced sampling scenario of only five blood samples using the current regulatory BE standards and criteria. The pop-PK modeling approach can be an efficient tool that requires only a reduced number of samplings for the BE assessment of dabigatran, thus can potentially lower the costs in future BE trials and benefit the participants of the study.

The relative risk of major gastrointestinal bleeding (GIB) among different direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) is debatable. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing DOACs with each other are lacking. We performed network meta-analysis to assess whether the risk of major GIB differs based on type and dose of DOAC. Literature search of PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane databases from inception to August 2019, limited to English publications, was conducted to identify RCTs comparing DOACs with warfarin or enoxaparin for any indication. Primary outcome of interest was major GIB risk. We used frequentist network meta-analysis through the random-effects model to compare DOACs with each other and DOACs by dose to isolate the impact on major GIB. Twenty-eight RCTs, including 139 587 patients receiving six anticoagulants, were selected. The risk of major GIB for DOACs was equal to warfarin. Comparison of DOACs with each other did not show risk differences. After accounting for dose, rivaroxaban 20 mg, dabigatran 300 mg and edoxaban 60 mg daily had 47, 40 and 22% higher rates of major GIB versus warfarin, respectively. Apixaban 5 mg twice daily had lower major GIB compared to dabigatran 300 mg (OR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.44-0.88) and rivaroxaban 20 mg (OR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.43-0.83) daily. Heterogeneity was low, and the model was consistent without publication bias (Egger's test: P = 0.079). All RCTs were high-quality with low risk of bias. DOACs at standard dose, except apixaban, had a higher risk of major GIB compared to warfarin. Apixaban had a lower rate of major GIB compared to dabigatran and rivaroxaban.

La sclérose systémique (SSc) est une maladie auto-immune chronique incurable caractérisée par une présentation clinique complexe et hétérogène. Notre laboratoire a développé un modèle murin de fibrose pulmonaire et cutanée qui est induit par l’immunisation répétitive avec des cellules dendritiques chargées avec des peptides de la topoisomérase I, et qui partage de nombreuses caractéristiques avec la SSc humaine. Premièrement, nous avons caractérisé la maladie expérimentale quant à sa persistance à long terme (objectif 1) et son caractère progressif (objectif 2). Une cascade de coagulation dérégulée est impliquée dans le développement de la fibrose dans la SSc. La thrombine, un médiateur clé de la coagulation, semble contribuer à ce processus. Deuxièmement, nous avons étudié l’efficacité d’un inhibiteur de la thrombine, i.e. dabigatran, dans ce modèle (objectif 3). Le microbiote intestinal semble jouer un rôle déterminant dans plusieurs pathologies, y compris les maladies auto-immunes. Troisièmement, nous avons évalué l’effet de la manipulation du microbiote des souris par l’administration de streptomycine (objectif 4). Les souris immunisées développent une maladie persistante et la fibrose observée est précédée d’une phase inflammatoire. Le dabigatran aggrave la fibrose pulmonaire et cutanée lorsqu’administré durant la période inflammatoire et n’a aucun effet protecteur durant la phase fibrotique. La manipulation du microbiote par la streptomycine aggrave l’atteinte pulmonaire lorsque l’antibiothérapie est donnée en début de vie et exacerbe l’atteinte cutanée lorsqu’administrée à l’âge adulte. Notre modèle expérimental représente donc un outil important pour évaluer différentes approches thérapeutiques pour la SSc de par sa persistance et son caractère progressif. En se basant sur nos résultats, le dabigatran ne semble pas constituer un choix thérapeutique adéquat pour traiter la fibrose chez les patients atteints de SSc. L’exposition à la streptomycine à certaines périodes de la vie affecte différentiellement le développement et les manifestations cliniques de la maladie expérimentale. / Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is an incurable and chronic autoimmune disease characterized by a complex and heterogeneous clinical presentation. Our laboratory has developed a mouse model of lung and skin fibrosis that shares many features with human SSc, and is induced by repeated immunization with dendritic cells loaded with peptides of topoisomerase I. First, the long term persistence (objective 1) and progressive nature (objective 2) of this experimental disease model was characterized. A dysregulated coagulation cascade is implicated in the development of fibrosis in SSc. Thrombin, a key mediator of coagulation, appears to contribute to this process. Next, the efficacy of dabigatran, a thrombin inhibitor, to ameliorate lung and skin fibrosis was studied in this model (objective 3). Intestinal microbiota appears to play a key role in several diseases including autoimmune diseases. Finally, the effect of manipulating gut microbiota by administration of streptomycin on disease pathogenesis was evaluated in this model (objective 4). Immunized mice developed persistent fibrosis that was preceded by an inflammatory phase. Dabigatran aggravated pulmonary and skin fibrosis when administered during the inflammatory period and was not protective when given during the fibrotic phase. Manipulation of intestinal microbiota by streptomycin aggravated lung fibrosis when it was given early in life and exacerbated skin disease when administered in adulthood. Our model of experimental SSc with progressive and persistent disease represents an important tool to evaluate different therapeutic approaches for SSc. Furthermore, our results caution against the use of dabigatran as a therapeutic option to treat fibrosis in patients with SSc. Exposure to streptomycin for certain periods of life differentially affects the development and clinical manifestations of experimental SSc.

Medical devices, such as catheters and heart valves, are an important part of patient care. However, blood-contacting devices can activate the blood coagulation cascade to produce factor (f) Xa, the clotting enzyme that induces thrombin generation. By activating platelets and converting soluble fibrinogen to fibrin, thrombin leads to blood clot formation. Blood clots that form on medical devices create problems because they may foul the device and/or serve as a nidus for infection. In addition, clots can break off from the device, travel through the circulation and lodge in distant organs; a process known as embolization. This is particularly problematic with central venous catheters because clots that form on them can break off and lodge in pulmonary arteries, thereby producing a pulmonary embolism. Similarly, clots that form on heart valves can break off and lodge in cerebral arteries, thereby producing a stroke. Therefore, anticoagulants, blood thinning drugs, are frequently used to prevent clotting on medical devices. Conventional anticoagulants, such as heparin and warfarin, target multiple clotting factors. Heparin binds to antithrombin in plasma and accelerates the rate at which it inhibits fXa, thrombin and many other clotting enzymes. Warfarin, which is a vitamin K antagonist, attenuates thrombin generation by interfering with the synthesis of the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, which include fX and prothrombin, the precursor of thrombin. In contrast to heparin and warfarin, more recent anticoagulants inhibit only a single clotting enzyme. For example, fondaparinux, a synthetic heparin fragment, only inhibits fXa and dabigatran, an oral thrombin inhibitor, only targets thrombin. Although effective for many indications, fondaparinux was less effective than heparin for preventing clotting on catheters in patients undergoing heart interventions and dabigatran was less effective than warfarin for preventing strokes in patients with mechanical heart valves. The failure of these new anticoagulants highlights the need for a better understanding into the drivers of clotting on medical devices. Therefore, the overall purpose of this thesis is to gain this understanding so that more rational approaches to its prevention can be identified. In the classical model of blood coagulation, clotting is triggered via two distinct pathways; the tissue factor (TF) pathway or extrinsic pathway and the contact pathway or intrinsic pathway; pathways which are initiated by fVIIa and fXIIa, respectively. The mechanism by which medical devices initiate clotting is uncertain. Platelet and complement activation and microparticle formation have been implicated, which would drive clotting via the TF pathway. Alternatively, medical devices can bind and activate fXII, thereby initiating the contact pathway. We hypothesized that medical devices trigger clotting via the contact pathway and induce the local generation of fXa and thrombin in concentrations that exceed the capacity of fondaparinux and dabigatran to inhibit them. To test this hypothesis, we used catheters as a prototypical medical device and we used a combination of in vitro and rabbit models. Several lines of evidence indicate that catheters initiate clotting via the contact pathway. First, catheter segments shortened the clotting time of human plasma, and this activity was attenuated in fXII- or fXI-deficient plasma, which are key components of the contact pathway, but not in fVII-deficient plasma, which is the critical component of the extrinsic pathway. Second, corn trypsin inhibitor (CTI), a potent and specific inhibitor of fXIIa, attenuates catheter thrombosis. Third, selective knockdown of fXII or fXI with antisense oligonucleotides attenuated catheter-induced thrombosis in rabbits, whereas knockdown of fVII had no effect. Therefore, these results revealed the importance of the contact pathway in device-associated thrombosis, and identified CTI or fXII or fXI knockdown as novel strategies for preventing this problem. Focusing on fXIIa as the root cause of medical device associated clotting, we coated catheters with CTI using a polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacer. In addition to unmodified catheters, other controls included catheters coated with albumin via a PEG spacer or catheters coated with PEG alone. Compared with unmodified catheters or with the other controls, CTI-coated catheters attenuated clotting in buffer or plasma systems and were resistant to occlusion in rabbits. These findings support the concept that catheter-induced clotting is driven via the contact pathway and identify CTI coating as a viable strategy for its prevention. We next set out to test the hypothesis that fondaparinux and dabigatran, which inhibit fXa and thrombin, respectively, are less effective than heparin, which inhibits multiple clotting enzymes. Fondaparinux and dabigatran were less effective than heparin at preventing catheter induced clotting and thrombin generation, respectively. Likewise, in a rabbit model of catheter thrombosis, fondaparinux was less effective than heparin and dabigatran was only effective when administered at doses that yielded plasma dabigatran levels similar to those found at peak in human given the drug; at trough levels, dabigatran was no better than placebo. Finally, we also showed synergy between heparin and either fondaparinux or dabigatran. Thus, when co-administered to rabbits in doses that on their own had no effect, the combination of fondaparinux or dabigatran plus heparin extended the time to catheter thrombosis. These findings support the hypothesis that when catheters trigger clotting via the contact pathway, fXa and thrombin are generated in concentrations that overwhelm the capacity of fondaparinux or dabigatran to inhibit them. Furthermore, the synergy between heparin and fondaparinux or dabigatran has clinical implications because it explains why supplemental heparin attenuated the risk of catheter thrombosis in patients treated with fondaparinux who underwent cardiac procedures and it identifies the potential role of supplemental heparin in dabigatran-treated patients who require such interventions. In summary, we have shown that catheters trigger clotting via the contact pathway and have identified CTI coating or fXII or fXI knockdown as viable strategies for prevention of this problem. In addition, for prevention of catheter thrombosis, we also have shown that heparin, which inhibits multiple coagulation enzymes, is more effective than fondaparinux or dabigatran, which only inhibit fXa or thrombin, respectively; findings consistent with the clinical observations. Moreover, the synergy that we observed between fondaparinux or dabigatran and heparin identifies supplemental heparin as strategy for preventing catheter thrombosis in patients receiving these drugs. Taken together, these studies provide insight into the mechanisms of catheter thrombosis and potential strategies for its prevention. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)