In this Thesis, I explore the formation and evolution of stellar spiral structures embedded in realistic dark matter haloes with very high resolution simulations. I first study the impact of the shape of the dark matter haloes. I find that non-adiabatic changes to the dark matter halo shape, commonly found in cosmological simulations due to the assembly history of haloes, can trigger strong two-armed grand-design spiral structures extending from the inner disc to the outer region. The nature of the spiral structures is found to be consistent with kinematic density waves based on the study of their power spectra. Such grand-design spiral structures may help the formation of transient multi-armed spiral structures if the self-gravity in disc is strong enough. Evolution of spiral structures is similar when the disc and the halo are misaligned, although warps develop additionally. I further find a strong correlation between the torque strength from the halo and the strength of the corresponding spiral structures. In the second part of my Thesis I then study the influence of subhaloes by including them from realistic cosmological simulations. I identify five different massive subhaloes that hit the central region of the disc, two out of which hit the disc twice. Aside from disc heating, three distinct generations of spiral structures are found in the stellar disc, which can be related to different subhaloes. For each generation, counter-rotating single-armed spiral structures develop first. They wind up very quickly before two-armed spiral structures become prominent. These spiral structures are again identified as kinematic density waves. We find that rather than interacting with the disc through resonances, subhaloes preferentially trigger spiral structures impulsively, due to their relatively short impact time with the disc. The strength of spiral structures can be related to the integrated strength of the torque generated by subhaloes. The correlation between the torque strength exerted by a triaxial dark matter halo and by subhaloes and the spiral strength may provide constraints on the distribution of dark matter.

In this thesis, I develop and combine strong lensing and dynamical probes of the mass of early-type galaxies (ETGs) in order to improve our understanding of their dark and luminous mass structure and evolution. Firstly, I demonstrate that the dark matter halo of our nearest brightest cluster galaxy (BCG), M87, is centrally cored relative to the predictions of dark-matter-only models, and suggest an interpretation of this result in terms of dynamical heating due to the infall of satellite galaxies. Conversely, I find that the haloes of a sample of 12 field ETGs are strongly cusped, consistent with adiabatic contraction models due to the initial infall of gas. I suggest an explanation for these differences in which the increased rate of merging and accretion experienced by ETGs in dense environments leads to increased amounts of halo heating and expansion, such that the signature of the halo's initial contraction is erased in BCGs but retained in more isolated systems. Secondly, I find evidence that the stellar-mass-to-light ratio declines with increasing radius in both field and cluster ETGs. With M87, I show that the strength of this gradient cannot be explained by trends in stellar metallicity or age if the stellar initial mass function (IMF) is spatially uniform, but that an IMF which becomes increasing bottom-heavy towards the galaxy centre can fully reproduce the inference on the stellar mass. Finally, I use the sizes, stellar masses and luminous structures of two samples of massive ETGs at redshift z ~ 0.6 to set constraints on the mechanisms of ETG growth. I find that ETGs in dense cluster environments already lie on the local size-mass relation at this redshift, contrary to their isolated counterparts, and suggest that this may be evidence for their accelerated growth at early times due to the higher incidence of merger events in clusters. I also show that massive compact ETGs at this redshift are composed of a compact, red, spheroidal core surrounded by a more extended, diffuse, bluer envelope, which may be a structural imprint of their ongoing inside-out growth. Overall, the studies presented in this thesis suggest a coherent scenario for ETG evolution which is dominated by hierarchical processes.

We develop two new methods to measure the structure of matter around the Milky Way using stellar tidal streams from disrupting dwarf galaxies and globular clusters. The dark matter halo of the Milky Way is expected to be triaxial and filled with substructure, but measurements of the shape and profile of dark matter around the Galaxy are highly uncertain and often contradictory. We demonstrate that kinematic data from near-future surveys for stellar streams or shells produced by tidal disruption of stellar systems around the Milky Way will provide precise measures of the gravitational potential to test these predictions. We develop a probabilistic method for inferring the Galactic potential with tidal streams based on the idea that the stream stars were once close in phase space and test this method on synthetic datasets generated from N-body simulations of satellite disruption with observational uncertainties chosen to mimic current and near-future surveys of various stars. We find that with just four well-measured stream stars, we can infer properties of a triaxial potential with precisions of order 5--7 percent. We then demonstrate that, if the Milky Way's dark matter halo is triaxial and is not fully integrable (as is expected), an appreciable fraction of orbits will be chaotic. We examine the influence of chaos on the phase-space morphology of cold tidal streams and show that streams even in weakly chaotic regions look very different from those in regular regions. We discuss the implications of this fact given that we see several long, thin streams in the Galactic halo; our results suggest that long, cold streams around our Galaxy must exist only on regular (or very nearly regular) orbits and potentially provide a map of the regular regions of the Milky Way potential. We then apply this understanding of stream formation along chaotic orbits to the interpretation of a newly-discovered, puzzling stellar stream near the Galactic bulge. We conclude that the morphology of this stream is consistent with forming along chaotic orbits due to the presence of the time-dependent Galactic bar. These results are encouraging for the eventual goal of using flexible, time-dependent potential models combined with larger data sets to unravel the detailed shape of the dark matter distribution around the Milky Way.

Over much of the last century evidence has been building for a new component of our universe that interacts primarily through gravitation. Known as cold dark matter, this non-luminous source is predicted to constitute 83% of matter and 26% of mass-energy in the universe. Experiments are currently searching for dark matter via its possible creation in particle colliders, annihilation in high-density regions of the universe, and interactions with Standard Model particles. So far dark matter has eluded detection so its composition and properties remain a mystery. Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) are hypothetical elementary particles that interact on the scale of the weak nuclear force. They naturally satisfy predictions from extensions of the Standard Model, and are one of the most favored dark matter candidates. A number of direct detection experiments dedicated to measuring their predicted interactions with atomic nuclei have been constructed over the last 25 years. Liquid xenon dual phase time projection chambers (TPCs) have led the field for spin-independent WIMP searches at WIMP masses of >10 GeV/c^2 for most of the last decade. XENON1T is the first tonne-scale TPC, and with 278.8 days of dark matter data has set the strictest limits on WIMP-nucleon interaction cross sections above WIMP masses of 6 GeV/c^2, with a minimum of 4.1 x10^{-47} cm^2 at 30 GeV/c^2. XENON1T and the analysis that led to this result are discussed, with an emphasis on electronic and nuclear recoil calibration fits, which help discriminate between background and WIMP-like events. Interactions in liquid xenon produce light and charge that are measured in TPCs. These signals are attenuated by electronegative impurities including O_2 and H_2O, which are homogeneously distributed throughout the liquid xenon. The decrease in observables enlarges the uncertainty in our analysis, and can decrease our sensitivity. Methods on measuring the charge loss are presented, and a physics model that describes the behavior of the electronegative impurity concentration over the lifetime of XENON1T is derived. The model is shown to successfully explain the more than two years of data.

Intensity mapping (IM) is a new observational technique to survey the large-scale structure of matter using emission lines, such as the 21 cm emission line of atomic hydrogen (HI) and the rotational lines of the carbon monoxide molecule (CO). Sensitive radio surveys have the potential to detect the HI power spectrum at low redshifts (z <1) in order to constrain the properties of dark energy and massive neutrinos. Observations of the HI signal will be contaminated by instrumental noise and, more significantly, by astrophysical foregrounds, such as the Galactic synchrotron emission, which is at least four orders of magnitude brighter than the HI signal. In this thesis, we study the ability of the Generalized Needlet Internal Linear Combination (GNILC) method to subtract radio foregrounds and to recover the cosmological HI signal for HI IM experiments. The GNILC method is a new technique that uses both frequency and spatial information to separate the components of the observed data. For simulated radio observations including HI emission, Galactic synchrotron, Galactic free-free, extragalactic point sources and thermal noise, we find that it can reconstruct the HI plus noise power spectrum with 7.0% accuracy for 0.13 <z <0.48 (960 - 1260 MHz) and l <400. In this work, GNILC is also applied to a particular CO IM experiment: the CO Mapping Array Pathfinder (COMAP). In this case, the simulated radio observations include CO emission, Galactic synchrotron, Galactic free-free, Galactic anomalous microwave emission, extragalactic point sources and thermal noise. We find that GNILC can reconstruct the CO plus noise power spectra with 7.3% accuracy for COMAP phase 1 (l <1800) and 6.3% for phase 2 (l <3000). In both cases, we have 2.4 <z <3.4 (26 - 34 GHz). In this work, we also forecast the uncertainties on cosmological parameters for the upcoming HI IM experiments BINGO (BAO from Integrated Neutral Gas Observations) and SKA (Square Kilometre Array) phase-1 dish array operating in auto-correlation mode. For the optimal case of BINGO with no foregrounds, the combination of the HI angular power spectra with Planck results allows w to be measured with a precision of 4%, while the combination of the BAO acoustic scale with Planck gives a precision of 7%. We consider a number of potentially complicating effects, including foregrounds and redshift dependent bias, which increase the uncertainty on w but not dramatically; in all cases the final uncertainty is found to be less than 8% for BINGO. For the combination of SKA-MID in auto-correlation mode (total-power) with Planck, we find that, in ideal conditions, w can be measured with a precision of 4% for the redshift range 0.35 <z <3 (350 - 1050 MHz) and 2% for 0 <z <0.49 (950 - 1421 MHz). Extending the model to include the sum of neutrino masses yields a 95% upper limit of less than 0.30 eV for BINGO and less than 0.12 eV for SKA phase 1, competitive with the current best constraints in the case of BINGO and significantly better in the case of SKA.

The Dark Triad constructs – Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism – are typically associated with socially aversive behaviours, including insensitivity and exploitation. Despite this, individuals high in Dark Triad traits can be successful and popular outside of clinical and forensic contexts. Research suggests that individuals susceptible to exploitation possess traits signalling vulnerability, and Dark Triad individuals are adept at identifying these when choosing victims. Language is also known to reveal traces of Dark Triad characteristics. This project examined patterns of interpersonal perception among Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism, with the aim to highlight similarities and differences across the three traits. Three studies explored these traits and the ways they manifest in social contexts. Study 1 investigated the extent to which perceptions of individuals high in Dark Triad traits accurately correspond to personality, emotional attributes, and vulnerability within their targets for manipulation. The cues they use for their judgements were considered. Participants who completed Dark Triad measures watched four video clips of dyadic interactions. Results indicated that Dark Triad individuals demonstrated a negative–other bias, whereby they generally perceived all targets as being vulnerable. Study 2 examined the characteristics of individuals who seemingly condone and abet Dark Triad individuals. Results showed that predictors of vulnerability included low extraversion, low conscientiousness, high neuroticism, and high agreeableness. The vignette method was used to elicit perceptions towards Dark Triad behaviours. Response styles on Likert-type statements and open-ended questions between high and low vulnerability groups differed significantly; the less vulnerable were more derogatory whereas the more vulnerable were less harsh. Study 3 qualitatively assessed language as a marker of Dark Triad traits using text analysis. Case studies of individuals high on the Dark Triad scales revealed that their linguistic patterns were consistent with their respective theoretical conceptions. This mixed methods research established that the Dark Triad traits do not uniformly entail the same behavioural outcomes. It also highlighted the importance of the interactive context between the destructive and the susceptible, through which researchers can devise strategies to help organisations better manage such individuals.

It is now a consolidated fact that our Universe is undergoing an accelerated expansion. According to Einstein's General Relativity, if the main constituents of our Universe were ordinary and cold dark matter, then we would expect it to be contracting and collapsing due to matter's attractive nature. The simplest explanation we have for this acceleration is in the form of a component with a negative ratio of pressure to density equal to -1 known as cosmological constant, Λ , presently dominating over baryonic and cold dark matter. However, the Λ Cold Dark Matter (Λ CDM) model suffers from a well known fine tuning problem. This led to the formulation of dark energy and modified gravity theories as alternatives to the problem of cosmic acceleration. These theories either include additional degrees of freedom, higher-order equations of motion, extra dimensionalities or imply non-locality. In this thesis we focus on single field scalar tensor theories embedded within Horndeski gravity. Even though there is currently doubt on their ability to explain cosmic acceleration without having a bare cosmological constant on their action, the degree of freedom they introduce mediates an additional fifth force. And while this force has to suppressed on Solar system scales, it can have interesting and observable effects on cosmological scales. Over the next decade there is a surge of surveys that will improve the understanding of our Universe on the largest scales. Hence, in this work, we take several different modified gravity theories and study their impact on cosmological observables. We will analyze the dynamics of linear perturbations on these theories and clearly highlight how they deviate from Λ CDM, allowing to break the degeneracy at the background level. We will also study the evolution of the gravitational potentials on sub horizon scales and provide simplified expressions at this regime and, for some models, obtain constraints using the latest data.

Neste trabalho analisamos algumas consequências físicas de uma cosmologia acelerada com interação no chamado setor cósmico escuro (energia escura + matéria escura fria). A componente de energia escura é representada por uma densidade de energia do vácuo que varia com o tempo e cuja lei de decaimento tem a seguinte forma: $\\Lambda = \\Lambda_0 + {3\\alpha}/{a^{2}}$, onde $\\Lambda_0$ é o termo de vácuo usual, $\\alpha$ é um parâmetro livre e $a(t)$ o fator de escala. Nesse contexto discutimos a tensão existente entre os dados de Supernovas (que preferem um Universo fechado, $\\Omega_{\\kappa} > 0$) e os dados da radiação cósmica de fundo que favorecem um Universo espacialmente plano ($\\Omega_{\\kappa} = 0$). Considerando que o termo variável simula uma curvatura (pois ambos possuem a mesma dependência no fator de escala), mostramos que sua contribuição atua no sentido de aliviar a tensão SNe Ia-CMB existente no modelo de concordância cósmica padrão ($\\Lambda CDM$, $\\alpha=0$). O modelo resolve o problema da idade do Universo e para $a>>1$, tal como ocorre com $\\Lambda CDM$, também evolui para um estágio de Sitter. O parâmetro $\\alpha$ é limitado através de uma análise estatística conjunta envolvendo dados de Supernovas, CMB ({\\it shift parameter}) e oscilações acústicas dos bárions (BAO). Separando o termo de vácuo em duas componentes ($\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0}$ e $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0}$) um teste $\\chi^{2}$ fornece os seguintes valores para o modelo plano: $\\Omega_{m0} = 0,27 \\pm 0,02$, $\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0} = 0,74 \\pm 0,02$ e $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0} = -0,01 \\pm 0,03$. / In this work we analyze some physical consequences of an accelerating cosmology endowed with interaction in the cosmic dark sector (dark energy + cold dark matter). The dark energy component is represented by a time-dependent vacuum energy whose decay law has the following form: $\\Lambda = \\Lambda_0 + {3\\alpha}/{a^{2}}$, where $\\Lambda_0$ is the standard vacuum term, $\\alpha$ is a free parameter and $a(t)$ is the scale factor. In this context we discuss the existing tension between Supernovas (SNe Ia, which prefer a closed Universe, $\\Omega_{\\kappa} > 0$) and the cosmic background radiation (CMB) data (which are favoring a spatially flat Universe, $\\Omega_{\\kappa} = 0$). By considering that the variable $\\Lambda$-term mimics a curvature (since both terms have the same dependence on the scale factor), we show that its contribution helps to alleviate the tension SNe Ia-CMB existing in the standard cosmic concordance model. The present model solves the age of the Universe problem and for $a>>1$, it also evolves to a de Sitter model as occur with the $\\Lambda CDM$ scenario. The contribution of the $\\alpha$ parameter is limited through a joint statistical analysis involving Supernovas, CMB ({\\it shift parameter}) and baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO). By separating the variable vacuum term in two components ($\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0}$ e $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0}$), a $\\chi^{2}$ test furnishes the following values for the free parameters of the flat model: $\\Omega_{m0} = 0,27 \\pm 0,02$, $\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0} = 0,74 \\pm 0,02$ and $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0} = -0,01 \\pm 0,03$.

One of the most pressing, modern cosmological mysteries is the cause of the accelerated expansion of the universe. The energy density required to cause this large scale opposition to gravity is known to be both far in excess of the known matter content, and remarkably smooth and unclustered across the universe. While the most commonly accepted answer is that a cosmological constant is responsible, alternatives abound. This thesis is primarily concerned with such alternatives; both their theoretical nature and observational consequences. In this thesis, we will dedicate Chapter 1 to a brief review on the fundamentals of general relativity, leading into the basics of theoretical cosmology. Following this we will recall some of the key observations that has lead to the standard CDM cosmology. The standard model has well known problems, many of which can be answered by the theoretical ideas of inflation. In Chapter 2 we explore these ideas, including a summary of classical field theory in the context of cosmology, upon which inflation is based. This also serves as the groundwork for Chapter 3, where the varied models of dark energy (and their motivations) are discussed - many of which are also reliant on field theory (such as quintessence). These notions are combined in a model described in Chapter 4, where we describe our own addition to a scenario that unifies dark energy and inflation. This addition - involving a coupling of the inflation field to an additional one - alter the way reheating takes place after inflation, removing some of the shortcomings of the original proposal. The analysis is extended in Chapter 5, to include the effect of quantum corrections. There we show that although a cursory analysis indicates a coupling between quintessence and some other field does not necessarily give rise to dangerously large quantum corrections, provided the effects of decoupling are taken into account. We move on in Chapter 6 to examine the basics of cosmological perturbation theory, and derive the general equations of motion for density and velocity perturbations for a system of fluids, allowing for the exchange of energy-momentum. We make use of this in Chapters 7 and 8, were we examine the growth of structure in a universe where energy is exchanged between dark matter and dark energy. In particular, in Chapter 7 we see that a particular form of the interaction can lead to an instability in the early universe, and we derive the condition for this to be the case. In Chapter 8, we discuss how a similar interaction can lead to a mimicry of modified gravity, and relate this directly to cosmological observations. Finally we summarise our conclusions and discuss avenues of future research in Chapter 9.

Neste trabalho analisamos algumas consequências físicas de uma cosmologia acelerada com interação no chamado setor cósmico escuro (energia escura + matéria escura fria). A componente de energia escura é representada por uma densidade de energia do vácuo que varia com o tempo e cuja lei de decaimento tem a seguinte forma: $\\Lambda = \\Lambda_0 + {3\\alpha}/{a^{2}}$, onde $\\Lambda_0$ é o termo de vácuo usual, $\\alpha$ é um parâmetro livre e $a(t)$ o fator de escala. Nesse contexto discutimos a tensão existente entre os dados de Supernovas (que preferem um Universo fechado, $\\Omega_{\\kappa} > 0$) e os dados da radiação cósmica de fundo que favorecem um Universo espacialmente plano ($\\Omega_{\\kappa} = 0$). Considerando que o termo variável simula uma curvatura (pois ambos possuem a mesma dependência no fator de escala), mostramos que sua contribuição atua no sentido de aliviar a tensão SNe Ia-CMB existente no modelo de concordância cósmica padrão ($\\Lambda CDM$, $\\alpha=0$). O modelo resolve o problema da idade do Universo e para $a>>1$, tal como ocorre com $\\Lambda CDM$, também evolui para um estágio de Sitter. O parâmetro $\\alpha$ é limitado através de uma análise estatística conjunta envolvendo dados de Supernovas, CMB ({\\it shift parameter}) e oscilações acústicas dos bárions (BAO). Separando o termo de vácuo em duas componentes ($\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0}$ e $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0}$) um teste $\\chi^{2}$ fornece os seguintes valores para o modelo plano: $\\Omega_{m0} = 0,27 \\pm 0,02$, $\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0} = 0,74 \\pm 0,02$ e $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0} = -0,01 \\pm 0,03$. / In this work we analyze some physical consequences of an accelerating cosmology endowed with interaction in the cosmic dark sector (dark energy + cold dark matter). The dark energy component is represented by a time-dependent vacuum energy whose decay law has the following form: $\\Lambda = \\Lambda_0 + {3\\alpha}/{a^{2}}$, where $\\Lambda_0$ is the standard vacuum term, $\\alpha$ is a free parameter and $a(t)$ is the scale factor. In this context we discuss the existing tension between Supernovas (SNe Ia, which prefer a closed Universe, $\\Omega_{\\kappa} > 0$) and the cosmic background radiation (CMB) data (which are favoring a spatially flat Universe, $\\Omega_{\\kappa} = 0$). By considering that the variable $\\Lambda$-term mimics a curvature (since both terms have the same dependence on the scale factor), we show that its contribution helps to alleviate the tension SNe Ia-CMB existing in the standard cosmic concordance model. The present model solves the age of the Universe problem and for $a>>1$, it also evolves to a de Sitter model as occur with the $\\Lambda CDM$ scenario. The contribution of the $\\alpha$ parameter is limited through a joint statistical analysis involving Supernovas, CMB ({\\it shift parameter}) and baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO). By separating the variable vacuum term in two components ($\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0}$ e $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0}$), a $\\chi^{2}$ test furnishes the following values for the free parameters of the flat model: $\\Omega_{m0} = 0,27 \\pm 0,02$, $\\Omega_{\\Lambda 0} = 0,74 \\pm 0,02$ and $\\Omega_{\\alpha 0} = -0,01 \\pm 0,03$.