<p>This thesis project describes how the retrieval of aerosol extinction and backscatter coefficients is computed from data obtained with a Raman lidar at FOI, Swedish Defense Research Agency. The theory is described, the implementation is done and problems discovered along the way are discussed. The lidar use the wavelength 355 nm and the Raman shift in nitrogen at 387 nm.</p><p>The retrieved algorithm gives extinction coefficient between 1 500 and 10 000 meters while the backscatter coefficient covers the span 800 to 15 000 meters. However there is skewness in the backscatter coefficient that needs to be further investigated. Tests indicate that the skewness comes from the way the measurements are done at FOI.</p>

The impact of habitat fragmentation and the success of habitat restoration were studied through a multi-taxonomic approach. The response to landscape structure and/or habitat quality of three taxonomic groups was explored, in (semi-)natural habitats. The three taxonomic groups were complementary, both in terms of their specific life history traits and their place in the food chain. We considered autotrophic species (vascular plants), herbivores (butterflies) and predators (spiders). Life-history traits and species specialization for target habitat were used to refine the analysis. Target habitat was a complex of wet heathlands, poor fens and bogs. Patches of this complex of habitats were sampled on two high plateaus in the Belgian Ardenne, the Plateau de Saint-Hubert and the Plateau des Tailles. Over the last 250 years, two jointly acting habitat dynamics were observed in these areas: a loss of area (and connectivity) on the one hand but also the creation of new habitat patches. It is precisely this double dynamics that enabled us to analyze and develop concepts linked to the response of species faced with spatio-temporal modifications of their habitat. Specifically, in this work we focused on the comprehension of two unbalanced situations, affecting the relationships between species richness and patch characteristics. A first unbalanced situation, the extinction debt, was observed for vascular plant communities. On the opposite, a colonization credit, the second unbalanced situation, was noted for butterflies and seemed to mainly affect specialist species. Specialist species of the three taxonomic groups showed relatively contrasted responses compared to generalist species. However, the life-history traits we studied only slightly influenced the response of species at the community level, excepted for pioneer communities in habitat patches less than 5 years old.

Many of the earth’s ecosystems are experiencing large species losses due to human impacts such as habitat destruction and fragmentation, climate change, species invasions, pollution, and overfishing. Due to the complex interactions between species in food webs the extinction of one species could lead to a cascade of further extinctions and hence cause dramatic changes in species composition and ecosystem processes. The complexity of ecological systems makes it difficult to study them empirically. The systems often consist of large species numbers with lots of interactions between species. Investigating ecological communities within a theoretical approach, using mathematical models and computer simulations, is an alternative or a complement to experimental studies. This thesis is a collection of theoretical studies. We use model food webs in order to explore how biodiversity (species number) affects the response of communities to species loss (Paper I-III) and to environmental variability (Paper IV). In paper I and II we investigate the risk of secondary extinctions following deletion of one species. It is shown that resistance against additional species extinctions increases with redundancy (number of species per functional group) (Paper I) in the absence of competition between basal species but decreases with redundancy in the presence of competition between basal species (Paper II). It is further shown that food webs with low redundancy run the risk of losing a greater proportion of species following a species deletion in a deterministic environment but when demographic stochasticity is included the benefits of redundancy are largely lost (Paper II). This finding implies that in the construction of nature reserves the advantages of redundancy for conservation of communities may be lost if the reserves are small in size. Additionally, food webs show higher risks of further extinctions after the loss of basal species and herbivores than after the loss of top predators (Paper I and II). Secondary extinctions caused by a primary extinction and mediated through direct and indirect effects, are likely to occur with a time delay since the manifestation of indirect effects can take long time to appear. In paper III we show that the loss of a top predator leads to a significantly earlier onset of secondary extinctions in model communities than does the loss of a species from other trophic levels. If local secondary extinctions occur early they are less likely to be balanced by immigration of species from local communities nearby implying that secondary extinctions caused by the loss of top predators are less likely to be balanced by dispersal than secondary extinctions caused by the loss of other species. As top predators are vulnerable to human-induced disturbances on ecosystems in the first place, our results suggest that conservation of top predators should be a priority. Moreover, in most cases time to secondary extinction is shown to increase with species richness indicating the decay of ecological communities to be slower in species-rich than in species-poor communities. Apart from the human-induced disturbances that often force species towards extinction the environment is also, to a smaller or larger extent, varying over time in a natural way. Such environmental stochasticity influences the dynamics of populations. In paper IV we compare the responses of food webs of different sizes to environmental stochasticity. Species-rich webs are found to be more sensitive to environmental stochasticity. Particularly, species-rich webs lose a greater proportion of species than species-poor webs and they also begin losing species faster than species-poor webs. However, once one species is lost time to final extinction is longer in species-rich webs than in species-poor webs. We also find that the results differ depending on whether species respond similarly to environmental fluctuations or whether they are totally uncorrelated in their response. For a given species richness, communities with uncorrelated species responses run a considerable higher risk of losing a fixed proportion of species compared with communities with correlated species responses.

Loss of biodiversity is one of the most severe threats to the ecosystems of the world. The major causes behind the high population and species extinction rates are anthropogenic activities such as overharvesting of natural populations, pollution, climate change and destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats. There is an urgent need of understanding how these species losses affect the ecological structure and functioning of our ecosystems. Ecological communities exist in a landscape but the spatial aspects of community dynamics have until recently to large extent been ignored. However, the community’s response to species losses is likely to depend on both the structure of the local community as well as its interactions with surrounding communities. Also the characteristics of the species going extinct do affect how the community can cope with species loss. The overall goal of the present work has been to investigate how both local and regional processes affect ecosystem stability, in the context of preserved biodiversity and maintained ecosystem functioning. The focus is particularly on how these processes effects ecosystem’s response to species loss. To accomplish this goal I have formulated and analyzed mathematical models of ecological communities. We start by analyzing the local processes (Paper I and II) and continue by adding the regional processes (Paper III, IV and V). In Paper I we analyze dynamical models of ecological communities of different complexity (connectance) to investigate how the structure of the communities affects their resistance to species loss. We also investigate how the resistance is affected by the characteristics, like trophic level and connectivity, of the initially lost species. We find that complex communities are more resistant to species loss than simple communities. The loss of species at low trophic levels and/or with high connectivity (many links to other species) triggers, on average, the highest number of secondary extinctions. We also investigate the structure of the post-extinction community. Moreover, we compare our dynamical analysis with results from topological analysis to evaluate the importance of incorporating dynamics when assessing the risk and extent of cascading extinctions. The characteristics of a species, like its trophic position and connectivity (number of ingoing and outgoing trophic links) will affect the consequences of its loss as well as its own vulnerability to secondary extinction. In Paper II we characterize the species according to their trophic/ecological uniqueness, a new measure of species characteristic we develop in this paper. A species that has no prey or predators in common with any other species in the community will have a high tropic uniqueness. Here we examine the effect of secondary extinctions on an ecological community’s trophic diversity, the range of different trophic roles played by the species in a community. We find that secondary extinctions cause loss of trophic diversity greater than expected from chance. This occurs because more tropically unique species are more vulnerable to secondary extinctions. In Paper III, IV and V we expand the analysis to also include the spatial dimension. Paper III is a book chapter discussing spatial aspects of food webs. In Paper IV we analyze how metacommunities (a set of local communities in the landscape connected by species dispersal) respond to species loss and how this response is affected by the structure of the local communities and the number of patches in the metacommunity. We find that the inclusion of space reduces the risk of global and local extinctions and that lowly connected communities are more sensitive to species loss. In Paper V we investigate how the trophic structure of the local communities, the spatial structure of the landscape and the dispersal patterns of species affect the risk of local extinctions in the metacommunity. We find that the pattern of dispersal can have large effects on local diversity. Dispersal rate as well as dispersal distance are important: low dispersal rates and localized dispersal decrease the risk of local and global extinctions while high dispersal rates and global dispersal increase the risk. We also show that the structure of the local communities plays a significant role for the effects of dispersal on the dynamics of the metacommunity. The species that are most affected by the introduction of the spatial dimension are the top predators.

This thesis project describes how the retrieval of aerosol extinction and backscatter coefficients is computed from data obtained with a Raman lidar at FOI, Swedish Defense Research Agency. The theory is described, the implementation is done and problems discovered along the way are discussed. The lidar use the wavelength 355 nm and the Raman shift in nitrogen at 387 nm. The retrieved algorithm gives extinction coefficient between 1 500 and 10 000 meters while the backscatter coefficient covers the span 800 to 15 000 meters. However there is skewness in the backscatter coefficient that needs to be further investigated. Tests indicate that the skewness comes from the way the measurements are done at FOI.

Les aires de répartition des arbres pourraient être grandement affectées par le changement climatique. Les résultats d'analyses paléogéographiques ont montré que ces dernières se sont déjà déplacées avec les variations passées du climat. Ces études ont permis de déterminer la direction et la vitesse de migration des espèces, données utilisées actuellement pour générer des prédictions sur l'évolution de l'aire de répartition des espèces forestières en réponse au réchauffement du climat. Cependant, le contexte écologique dans lequel les arbres font face à ces changements est très différent par rapport aux changements climatiques passés : l'augmentation actuelle des températures est plus rapide, les surfaces susceptibles d'être colonisées sont occupées par des écosystèmes très différents et variés (forêts, surfaces agricoles, zones urbaines). Par conséquent, les arbres pourront-ils faire face à la rapidité des changements globaux actuels ? Auront-ils la capacité de migrer pour trouver des conditions plus favorables ou pourront-ils s'adapter et survivre à de nouvelles conditions environnementales ? Dans un premier temps, l'analyse de données historiques (plans d'aménagements de l'Office Nationale des Forêts et Inventaires Forestiers Espagnols) a permis de mettre en évidence des évènements de colonisation et d'extirpation et de quantifier la vitesse de migration de populations situées au cœur ou aux marges de leur aire de répartition. Une colonisation massive de Quercus ilex dans les dunes boisées atlantiques (limite Nord d'aire de répartition) a été mise en évidence au cours des 130 dernières années, confirmant les tendances prédites par les modèles. Cependant, les vitesses de colonisation de cette espèce restent bien inférieures aux déplacements de son bioclimat estimés à partir de modèles de niche. Les espèces localisées en limite Sud d'aire de répartition présentent des remontées altitudinales plus importantes que pour celles situées au cœur de leur aire. En conclusion, nos résultats montrent que les changements globaux ont déjà impactés la répartition des arbres malgré l'existence d'un décalage temporel entre les réponses migratoires des espèces forestières et le déplacement de leur bioclimat. Le stress hydrique est le facteur prépondérant pouvant expliquer le dépérissement des arbres dans un milieu dont la disponibilité en eau est limitée, notamment en marge chaude d'aire de répartition. Nous avons, par conséquent, étudié la résistance à la sécheresse et ses mécanismes chez les plusieurs espèces d'Angiospermes. Nos résultats montrent qu'un seuil de 90% d'embolie mène à des dommages physiologiques irréversibles de la plante et à la mort par déshydratation. Ce seuil est considérablement plus élevé que celui précédemment observé chez les conifères. L'étude du fonctionnement hydraulique d'espèces de chênes co-occurrentes nous a permis de montrer que la survie de Q. robur pourrait être menacée dans les forêts atlantiques dans un contexte de sécheresses de plus en plus intenses car il y subit des taux d'embolie native élevés. Au contraire, Q. ilex présente des taux d'embolie négligeables sur ce même site d'étude.Les vitesses réelles de migrations constituent des données empiriques essentielles qui nous renseignent sur les capacités migratoires effectives des arbres. Elles pourront être intégrées dans les modèles de répartition, tout comme les seuils d'embolie induisant la mort des arbres.

<p>In the present study, we examined the predictions of an attentional-associative model (Schmajuk, Lam, & Gray Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 22, 321-349, 1996) regarding the effect of attentional manipulations on both discrete and contextual conditioned inhibitors.</p><p>The SLG model assumes that non-reinforced presentations of an inhibitory conditioned stimulus (CS) do not decrease its inhibitory associations. However, the model predicts that extended presentations will decrease attention to the inhibitor, thereby, decreasing both the expression of its inhibitory power in a summation test and the rate of acquisition in a retardation test. The model also predicts that subsequent presentations of the inhibitory CS with a novel CS will increase both its inhibitory power in a summation test and the rate of acquisition in a retardation test. Using a predictive learning design in humans, Experiment 1 examined the predictions involving the summation tests, whereas Experiments 2 and 3 examined the predictions involving the retardation tests. Experimental results were in agreement with the predictions of the model. </p><p>The SLG model also predicts that a salient extinction context (CX) becomes inhibitory and prevents extinction of the excitatory CS-unconditioned stimulus (US) association. Although some data seem to contradict that prediction (e.g., Bouton and King, 1983, Bouton and Swartzentruber, 1986, 1989), Larrauri and Schmajuk (2008) indicated that the CX might not appear inhibitory in a summation test because attention to the CX decreases with many but not few extinction trials. In a human predictive learning experiment, we confirmed the model's predictions that the inhibitory power of the extinction CX can be detected after a few extinction trials when attention to the CX is still high, but not after many extinction trials once attention to the CX has decreased (Experiment 4), and even after many extinction trials by presenting novel CSs to increase attention to the unattended CX (Experiment 5). Furthermore, using an eye-tracker, we confirmed the model's explanation of Experiment 4 results by showing decreased overt attention to the CX after many but not after few extinction trials (Experiment 6).</p><p> Importantly, the view that the extinction CX becomes inhibitory allows the model to explain spontaneous recovery (because attention to the excitatory CS increases before attention to the inhibitory CX), renewal (because the inhibition provided by the extinction CX disappears), and reinstatement (the inhibitory CX becomes neutral or excitatory), as well as a very large number of other experimental results related to extinction. Based on the prediction of the SLG, model the implications of our results for the treatments of anxiety disorders were discussed.</p> / Dissertation

The mechanisms underlying cannabinoid impairment of fear memory is not clear. This study investigated the effects of the synthetic cannabinoid HU210 and the endocannabinoid hydrolysis inhibitor JZL 195 on fear memory following contextual fear conditioning (CFC; an animal model of fear). The long-term depression (LTD)-blocking peptide Tat-GluR2 was utilized to investigate whether the expression of cannabinoid-induced LTD (CB-LTD) is required for the cannabinoid impairment of acquisition and consolidation of contextual fear memory. HU210 reduced freezing throughout the test phase of the acquisition protocol, which was not affected by pre-administration of Tat-GluR2. High and moderate doses of HU210 reduced freezing during the first and last half, respectively, of the test phase of the consolidation protocol, which was prevented by pre-treatment with Tat-GluR2. HU210 did not affect freezing during the test phase of the retrieval protocol. Thus, these results suggest that HU210 impairs acquisition and consolidation, but not retrieval of contextual fear memory, and that in vivo CB-LTD expression is required for HU210 impairment of the consolidation, but not acquisition, of contextual fear memory. We also observed that HU210 and JZL 195 do not facilitate the acquisition of contextual fear memory extinction.

Comme tous les organismes marins, les ostracodes subissent un changement drastique au cours de l'extinction en masse de la fin du Permien. En Chine du Sud, le Permien supérieur affleure largement. Des études précédentes ont été conduites sur la taxonomie, la biostratigraphie et le paléoenvironnement des ostracodes néritiques du Permien supérieur. C'est ici la première étude sur les ostracodes profonds du Permien supérieur de Chine et la première dans le monde sur le Permien terminal. A ce jour, les seules données disponibles sur les ostracodes profonds du Permien proviennent du Permien inférieur d'Indonésie et du Permien moyen - Wuchiapingien d'Italie. Dans cette thèse, quatre coupes de séries profondes de Chine du Sud (Bassin du Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi et Bassin du Yangste inférieur) sont étudiées en détail pour la taxonomie, le paléoenvironnement (paléobathymétrie et niveau de paléo-oxygénation) et les processus "d'extinction". La taxonomie des ostracodes est le travail de base. Une faune diversifiée est représentée par 43 genres et 128 espèces. Deux nouvelles espèces Bairdia dongpanensis et Spinomicrocheilinella anterocompressa ont été décrites. Un nouveau genre Denticupachydomella n.gen. et deux nouvelles espèces Pseudobythocypris guiqianensis n.sp. et Denticupachydomella spinosa n.sp. sont proposés. Beaucoup de spécimens ont une conservation médiocre et ne présentent pas suffisamment de caractères pour une identification précise. Les spécimens déterminés appartiennent aux Palaeocopida, Podocopida et Myodocopida. Les espèces typiquement Paléozoïque dominent la faune et sont accompagnées de quelques formes à affinité mésozoïque (i.e. Abrobairdia, Lobobairdia). 19 espèces ont été rattachées à du matériel précédemment décrit du Dévonien supérieur au Permien supérieur d'Amérique du Nord, d'Europe et d'Asie du Sud-Est. La faune étudiée a un taux d'endémisme de 85.2%. La paléobathymétrie est analysée à partir du modèle de Lethiers & Raymond (1991) qui utilise les proportions d'ostracodes psychrosphériques/Bairdiidea/autres espèces néritiques. 38 espèces sont considérées comme psychrosphériques. Elles appartiennent aux Bairdiidae épineux, Bythocytheridae, Tricorninidae, Berounellinidae, Rectonariidae, Pachydomellidae, Healdiidae, Quasillitidae, Polycopidae, Discoidella et deux espèces indetminées de podocopid. La coupe de Dongpan est la plus profonde et présente des variations de bathymétrie depuis la plate-forme externe jusqu'au milieu bathyal. Ces interprétations sont bien en adéquation avec les résultats d'autres analyses (radiolaires, sédimentologie, minéralogie et géochimie). Quelques événements locaux (courants de turbidité) peuvent perturber le signal. Pour l'évaluation de la teneur en oxygène, le modèle FF% (pourcentage d'ostracodes filtreurs) de Lethiers & Whatley (1994) est appliqué pour la première fois à des faunes profondes. Un seul horizon dans la coupe de Dongpan présente un niveau d'oxygénation proche de la dysoxie. En milieu néritique, un intervalle de transition, avec des faunes typiquement paléozoïques et des nouveaux venus mésozoïques a récemment été mis en évidence. Il semble que ce phénomène soit observable également en milieu profond. Il ne semble pas y avoir de phénomène de miniaturisation chez les ostracodes profonds à l'approche de la limite Permien-Trias. Dans la coupe groupée Liuqiao-Dongpan, deux horizons d'extinction sont mis en évidence. Le premier horizon correspond à la crise majeure chez les radiolaires, à la régression, à une activité volcanique intense et peut-être un niveau disoxique. Ces niveau d'extinction sont corrélés avec le GSSP de la limite Permien-Trias à Meishan. Il semblerait que les événements d'extinction soient plus précoces en milieu profond qu'en milieu néritique.

The Hirnantian mass extinction was the second largest of the Phanerozoic. A global sea level fall resulting from a glaciation on Gondwanaland caused significant changes in ocean circulation patterns and nutrient cycling that is recorded as a worldwide positive δ13C excursion.<p> In chapter 2, carbon and nitrogen isotope profiles were reconstructed from two North American carbonate platforms in Nevada and one in the Yukon with the purpose of gaining a better understanding of proximal to proximal gradients in δ13C values from Hirnantian epeiric seaway sediment. Positive δ13C excursions are recorded in bulk inorganic and organic carbon fractions from all three sections, and in graptolite periderms from one section. A larger positive excursion is recorded in the proximal sediment (7) compared to proximal sediment (3-4). This gradient appears to reflect differences in surface water dissolved inorganic carbon δ13C values across epeiric seas. These findings are consistent with the carbonate weathering hypothesis, that predicts larger positive δ13C shifts in proximal settings of tropical epeiric seas resulting from changes in the local carbon weathering flux caused by the exposure of vast areas of carbonate sediment during glacioeustatic sea level fall and restricted shelf circulation. A 2 positive excursion in δ15N is interpreted to result from increased ocean ventilation, greater partitioning of atmospheric oxygen into downwelling surface waters, oxygen minimum zone shrinkage, and declining denitrification rates. This allowed for upwelling of recycled nitrogen with high 15N values into the photic zone that forced exported organic matter from the photic zone to higher 15N values, consistent with the observed positive shift in 15N during the Hirnantian glaciation. This study presents a conceptual model to explain secular changes in δ13C and δ15N during the transition from a greenhouse to icehouse climate.<p> The second focus of this research, presented in chapter 3, was on improving the chemical and analytical methods for δ18O analysis of biogenic apatites. The technique applies cation exchange chromatography that allows for small sample sizes of apatite (200 µg) to be used for chemical conversion to Ag3PO4. The precision (0.15, 1) of δ18O analysis obtained using a Thermal Conversion Elemental Analyser Continuous Flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (TC/EA CF-IRMS), and the ability to collect multipe isotopes (O, Ca, Sr, REE) using a cation exchange column, makes this technique valuable for high-resolution, multi-isotope studies of biogenic apatites.