Dans les milieux fortement hétérogènes, les ondes ne se propagent pas de façon balistique. Elles peuvent interagir de nombreuses fois avec les hétérogénéités du milieu et entrer ainsi dans le régime de diffusion multiple. Dans ce régime, les méthodes classiques d'imagerie basées sur les trajets des ondes directes ou simplement diffusées sont inefficaces. Les formes d'ondes multiplement diffusées (coda) sont trop complexes pour être modélisées exactement mais elles sont parfaitement reproductibles et très sensibles aux variations du milieu de propagation. Des travaux récents ont démontré la possibilité de mesurer de faibles changements de vitesse d'un milieu grâce aux ondes diffuses, à l'échelle de la croûte terrestre (coda sismique) comme à l'échelle des matériaux (coda ultrasonore). Ces travaux s'intéressent majoritairement à des changements globaux ou régionaux des différents milieux. La problématique de cette thèse concerne la possibilité d'utiliser la coda pour étudier des changements locaux du milieu. Deux études complémentaires sont développées : Le problème direct consiste à modéliser les variations de la coda engendrées par un changement local. Nous distinguons le cas d'un changement local de structure (fort contraste d'impédance) du cas d'un changement local de vitesse (faible contraste d'impédance). Le problème inverse consiste à utiliser les mesures de variations de la coda pour tenter de localiser et de caractériser les changements survenus. Les applications potentielles de ces travaux concernent entre autres le suivi temporel de structures géologiques ainsi que le contrôle non destructif de matériaux hétérogènes. Avec cet objectif, les différentes méthodes développées sont illustrées par des simulations numériques d'ondes acoustiques et sismiques ainsi que par des expériences en ultrasons dans des éléments en béton. / In highly heterogeneous media, waves don't propagate ballistically. They can interact several times with the heterogeneities of the medium and enter the multiple scattering regime. In this regime, classical imaging techniques, based on direct or singly scattered waves fail. Multiply scattered waveforms (coda) are too complex for being exactly modeled but are perfectly reproducible and very sensitive to small variations of the medium. Recent works demonstrated the possibility of measuring small velocity variations with diffuse waves, either at the geophysical scale (seismic coda) or at the material scale (ultrasonic coda). These works are mainly focused in monitoring global or regional changes of the medium. The present thesis deals with the possibility of using coda waves to study local changes of the medium. Two complementary studies are developed: The forward problem addresses the modeling of the coda variations generated by a local change. We distinguish the case of a structural change (strong impedance contrast) from the case of a velocity change (small impedance contrast). The inverse problem consists in using the coda variations measurements to locate and characterize the changes that occurred. Potential applications may concern, among others, monitoring of geological structures and non-destructive testing of heterogeneous materials. This in mind, we illustrate the different studies with numerical simulations of acoustic and seismic waves and with ultrasound experiments in concrete blocks.

Com o aumento das ameaças na Internet, firewalls tornaram-se mecanismos de defesa cada vez mais utilizados. No entanto, sua configuração é notadamente complexa, podendo resultar em erros. Vários estudos foram realizados com o intuito de resolver tais problemas, mas a grande maioria deles se concentrou em trabalhar diretamente no nível de configuração, o que possui limitações. O presente trabalho investiga maneiras de extrair políticas em mais alto nível a partir de regras de firewall em baixo nível, o que é mais intuitivo. A fim de extrair as políticas reais a partir de regras de firewall, o problema do descorrelacionamento é estudado e algoritmos anteriormente propostos para resolvê-lo são apresentados e discutidos. É apresentado, também, um tipo de grafo para a melhor visualização e análise de correlacionamento entre regras. Além disso, é pesquisado o agrupamento de regras descorrelacionadas, que tem o objetivo de elevar o nível das mesmas. São apresentados dois algoritmos para realizar o agrupamento, sendo um deles novo. A seguir, é proposta uma nova metodologia de extração de políticas de firewall. A primeira parte desta consiste na utilização de um novo tipo de descorrelacionamento, o descorrelacionamento hierárquico. Este é acompanhado por uma nova maneira de agrupar regras descorrelacionadas hierarquicamente, o agrupamento hierárquico. A segunda parte é uma nova modelagem de regras de firewall que fazem parte de blacklist ou whitelist, separando-as das demais regras na extração de políticas. Algumas maneiras de realizar esta separação também são discutidas. Por fim, são relatadas as conclusões e possibilidades de trabalhos futuros. / As the number of threats in the Internet grows, firewalls have become a very important defense mechanism. However, configuring a firewall is not an easy task and is prone to errors. Several investigations have been made towards solving these issue. However, most of them have focused on working directly at the configuration level and have a number of limitations. This work investigates methods to extract higher level policies from low level firewall rules. Aiming at extracting real policies from firewall rules, we analyse the firewall decorrelation problem and previously proposed algoritmhs to solve it. In addition, a new type of graph is presented aiming at better visualising and analysing rules’ correlation. We also investigate the merging of decorrelated rules, with the goal of defining more abstract rules. Two algorithms are then presented and a new methodology for the extraction of firewall policies is proposed. This methodology is twofold. The first part consists of the use a new type of decorrelation: the hierachical decorrelation, which is introduced along with a new way of hierarchically merging decorrelated rules. The second part is a new model for blacklist or whitelist firewall rules, separating them from the other rules in the policy extraction. We also present alternatives for accomplishing this separation. Finally, we conclpude and point out directions for future work.

This thesis presents phenomenological studies of a state-of-the-art NNLL+NLO theoretical calculation of a novel collider observable known as 'phi star'. In these studies the 'phi star' observable, a measure of azimuthal decorrelation, is applied directly to the leptons in the production of massive lepton pairs in hadron collisions (the Drell-Yan process). This provides an alternate measure of the recoil of the massive vector boson (Z/gamma) against initial state QCD radiation, but with distinct experimental advantages over the traditional boson transverse momentum. Attention is focused on the small-'phi star' regime (the quasi-back-to-back regime) where the infrared dynamics of soft/collinear gluon emissions become important. These phenomenological studies are followed up with the presentation of a measurement of 'phi star' in 'Z to mu mu' events using 20.3 fb^-1 of collision data collected by the ATLAS experiment in 2012. Finally, studies directly related to the ATLAS absolute luminosity calibration by the van der Meer (vdM) method are presented, with the objective of elucidating the role of transverse linear beam correlation. In particular, I present studies using an analytical method I have developed in order to precisely extract individual beam information by way of studying phenomena pertaining to the luminous region during vdM scans. In addition, a dedicated study of the long- and short-term stabilities of the principal detectors for luminosity monitoring is also presented, along with an appropriate recalibration of these detectors.

Cette thèse étudie, théoriquement et numériquement, la décorrélation verticale d’un tourbillon initialement vertical par un écoulement externe cisaillé sinusoïdalement dans un fluide stratifié. Il a été proposé qu’un tel mécanisme devrait déclencher des instabilités de cisaillement et ainsi contribuer à la production de petites échelles en turbulence fortement stratifiée, que l’on rencontre dans l’atmosphère et les océans dans une gamme d’échelles où la force de Coriolis est négligeable.La première partie de la thèse étudie les évolutions des énergies et enstrophie totales du tourbillon calculées au moyen de Simulations Numériques Directes (DNS), en fonction des paramètres de contrôle. Cette analyse montre que la dynamique est différente de celle des écoulements libres en déclin : du fait de la présence du cisaillement ambiant, la condition de saturation entre les termes d’étirement et de dissipation dans le bilan d’enstrophie globale implique que l’enstrophie maximale du tourbillon sature proportionnellement à $Re^{2/3}$, où $Re$ est le nombre de Reynolds, au lieu de $Re$. Néanmoins, cette condition de saturation ne rend pas compte de l’effet observé de la stratification.Afin de l’expliquer, la dynamique locale du tourbillon a été étudiée au travers de deux analyses asymptotiques présentées dans une deuxième partie. Une étude pour temps courts prouve que la réponse initiale du tourbillon est non-hydrostatique quelle que soit la stratification. Une autre analyse pour grande longueur d’onde fournit les équations qui décrivent l’évolution de la vitesse angulaire du tourbillon et des déformations de son axe. L’excitation d’ondes internes au début de l’évolution est à l’origine du régime non-hydrostatique initial. Le tourbillon est principalement advecté dans la direction du cisaillement ambiant mais aussi perpendiculairement du fait de son auto-induction. Sa vitesse angulaire décroît à cause d’effets dynamique et visqueux. La décroissance dynamique est dûe à un resserrement des lignes isopycnes dans le cœur du tourbillon, qui implique une atténuation de la vorticité verticale afin que la vorticité potentielle se conserve.Dans une troisième partie, des DNS révèlent que l’instabilité de cisaillement se développe seulement lorsque la stratification est modérée et la longueur d’onde du cisaillement ambiant suffisamment petite. Les résultats numériques sont comparés aux prédictions asymptotiques. En particulier, les évolutions du cisaillement vertical de vitesse horizontale et du gradient vertical de flottabilité sont prédites de manière fine et exhaustive par l’analyse asymptotique pour grande longueur d’onde lorsque le nombre de Froude est petit. Le nombre de Richardson asymptotique admet un minimum qui n’est pratiquement jamais inférieur au seuil critique $1/4$ nécessaire au déclenchement de l’instabilité de cisaillement. La saturation du cisaillement vertical est dûe au déclin du tourbillon dans les régions où le cisaillement ambiant est maximal. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’instabilité de cisaillement est difficilement déclenchée par des processus de décorrélation dans les écoulements fortement stratifiés, contredisant ainsi les conjectures précédemment formulées dans la littérature. / This thesis investigates, theoretically and numerically, the vertical decorrelation of an initially vertical vortex by an ambient sinusoidal shear flow in a stratified fluid. It has been conjectured that such process should trigger the shear instability and, as such, contribute to the generation of small scales in strongly stratified turbulence. This type of turbulence is encountered in the atmosphere and the oceans in an intermediate range of scaleswhere Coriolis effects are negligible.The first part analyses the evolutions of the total energy and enstrophy of the vortex in Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) as functions of the control parameters. This study reveals that the dynamics differs from freely decaying flows: because of the presence of the ambient shear flow, the balance between stretching and dissipation terms in the global enstrophy budget implies that the maximum enstrophy of the vortex scales as $Re^{2/3}$, where $Re$ is the Reynolds number, instead of simply $Re$. However, such simplified balance does not account for the observed effect of the stratification.In order to overcome this difficulty, the local dynamics of the vortex has been investigated by means of two asymptotic analyses, presented in the second part. A short-time analysis first proves that the initial response of the vortex is non-hydrostatic regardless of the stratification. A long-wavelength analysis provides governing equations for the evolution of the angular velocity of the vortex and the deformations of its axis. Internal waves are excited at the start-up of the motion, explaining the initial non-hydrostatic regime. The vortex is mostly advected in the direction of the shear flow but also perpendicularly owing to the self-induced motion. Its angular velocity decays because of dynamic and viscous effects. The former effect is due to the squeezing of the isopycnals in the vortex core which implies a decrease of the vertical vorticity to conserve potential vorticity.In a third part, the DNS show that the shear instability is only triggered if the Froude number is moderate and the wavelength of the shear small enough. The numerical results are compared to the asymptotic predictions. In particular, the evolutions of the vertical shear of horizontal velocity and of the vertical buoyancy gradient for small Froude number are comprehensively and finely captured by the long-wavelength asymptotic predictions. The minimum value of the asymptotic Richardson number almost never goes below the critical threshold $1/4$ necessary for the development of the shear instability. The saturation of the vertical shear is due to the decay of the vortex in the regions of high ambient shear. These results suggest that the shear instability is not easilytriggered by decorrelation processes in strongly stratified flows in contradiction with previous conjectures.

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"The goal of this thesis work has been to investigate improved diagnostic methods for both detecting osteoporosis and estimating fracture risk non-invasively, by assessing bone mass density (BMD) and bone microstructure. It evaluates new approaches for analyzing through-transmission ultrasound signals using coral samples as models for trabecular bone. The results of BUA, impulse response of coral samples and the angular decorrelation function of coral samples indicate that these ultrasound parameters may be useful in detecting changes in both bone mineral density (BMD) and the presence of dominant trabecular bone structure axis. "