Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der seit Beginn der neunziger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts kontinuierlich gestiegenen Erwerbspartizipation von Studierenden während der Vorlesungszeit. Die Entwicklung dieses Verhaltens wurde vor dem Hintergrund der gesunkenen Bereitschaft zum Belohnungsaufschub theoretisch erklärt und empirisch untersucht. Dazu wurde eine Online-Befragung durchgeführt, an der sich 529 Studierende aus verschiedenen deutschen Städten beteiligten. Resultierend aus der statistischen Analyse der gewonnenen Daten zeigte sich, dass die Stärke der psychischen Belastungen, die durch einen Belohnungsaufschub entstehen, den Umfang der wöchentlich investierten Zeit in einen studentischen Erwerb beeinflussen. Weitere Effekte gingen bei der Erklärung der Bedingungen, die die Intensität eines studentischen Erwerbs befördern, von konsumtiven und hedonistischen Wertorientierungen der Studierenden aus. Darüber hinaus spielen vorstrukturierende, studienbezogene Maßnahmen in den Fachbereichen der Hochschulen, antizipierte berufsperspektivische Unwägbarkeiten auf dem Arbeitsmarkt sowie Bestrebungen der Studierenden hinsichtlich größerer finanzieller Unabhängigkeit eine Rolle bei der Ausübung von Nebenjobs.

Despite being one of the most well-known laboratory-based tasks in psychology, certain methodological and theoretical considerations surrounding the marshmallow test have gone largely unstudied until recently. These considerations reflect gaps in the delay of gratification literature and broader contemporary issues concerning the replicability of seminal findings and the lack of an agreed upon theoretical framework in the field. Accordingly, my dissertation uses the classic marshmallow test to explore the contemporary issues of replication and theory in psychology in a series of three studies. In Study 1, the marshmallow test is at the center of a case study unpacking the nuances of direct and conceptual replication; a tool designed to support ongoing replication efforts is proposed. Study 2 executes a full-scale replication of the paradigm from the case study, and introduces a methodological extension to improve the paradigm’s experimental rigour while making it amenable to an evolutionary–developmental framework. Finally, Study 3 applies an evolutionary–developmental framework to examine how this perspective might help account for individual differences in marshmallow test behavior. Through these three studies, my dissertation provides an example of how engaging in replication and applying an evolutionary–developmental framework to the marshmallow test literature to inform outstanding theoretical questions in psychology might be mutually beneficial endeavors. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / This dissertation uses an iconic measure in psychology, “the marshmallow test,” to explore issues currently relevant to the field today. The marshmallow test measures delay of gratification––how children chose between a small reward now or a larger reward later. However, despite being one of the most well-known laboratory-based tasks in psychology, certain methodological and theoretical considerations surrounding the marshmallow test have gone largely unstudied until recently. These considerations reflect two bigger issues relevant to psychology more broadly: that of how well findings in psychology can be replicated, and the lack of an overarching and unifying theory in the field. Using the marshmallow test, this dissertation 1) proposes a tool to support ongoing replication efforts, 2) executes a replication and extension of a recent well-cited study, and 3) introduces ways of exploring how a framework that takes evolutionary–developmental principles into account might help address outstanding theoretical questions in the study of delay of gratification.

Delay of gratification is the ability to forego an immediate indulgence in lieu of a later, greater reward. Past research has shown that using behavioral strategies may help children to delay gratification longer. The current project tests whether children can learn one such strategy, covering the eyes, through imitation. Four-year-olds saw a model delay gratification using a strategy, using no strategy, or saw no model. They then participated in an accumulation task, where they could earn an incremental sticker reward. Children who saw a strategy showed evidence of imitation by covering their eyes. Unexpectedly, however, this had an adverse influence on their ability to delay gratification. Thus, although children can apply a strategy, its effectiveness may be limited by the type of task used (accumulation) or from an incomplete understanding of the strategy’s function. Additional research is needed to investigate whether delay performance can be promoted by a social example.

A wide range of measures have been used to assess self-control including executive function tasks, delay of gratification tasks, and persistence and willpower tasks. The current study sought to examine the convergent and predictive validity of these measures, provide theoretical backing for why we might or might not expect high correlations between different indicators of the construct, and question whether such measures are assessing construct-level variance. The results largely replicated prior research, with the majority of correlations being small in magnitude and non-significant. Possible interpretations include indicators assessing distinct and unrelated subdomains of self-control, the inappropriate use of measures that maximize within person variance, indicators being plagued by large sources of error variance, or some combination of these.

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Pitting long-term goals against short-term desires is among the most difficult tasks in human decision-making. According to behavioural and neuroeconomic theories of self-regulation, these decisions involve a competition between “hot” reward-focused impulses and “cool” cognitive control mechanisms. The current dissertation examines this topic from the perspective of social and personality neuroscience, exploring the cognitive and affective dynamics underlying the self-regulatory process. Chapters 1 and 2 explore how the “hot” system is dispositionally expressed in the personality trait of Extraversion, and the implications of this finding for decision-making behaviour. Turning to the “cool” system, Chapter 3 examines the role of effective performance monitoring in predicting real-world self-regulatory outcomes. Finally, Chapter 4 addresses the question of whether self-regulatory performance can be improved, reporting the effects of a goal-setting intervention on long-term decision-making. Results across the studies are discussed within an integrative model of self-regulation, situated within a social-personality neuroscience framework.

Pitting long-term goals against short-term desires is among the most difficult tasks in human decision-making. According to behavioural and neuroeconomic theories of self-regulation, these decisions involve a competition between “hot” reward-focused impulses and “cool” cognitive control mechanisms. The current dissertation examines this topic from the perspective of social and personality neuroscience, exploring the cognitive and affective dynamics underlying the self-regulatory process. Chapters 1 and 2 explore how the “hot” system is dispositionally expressed in the personality trait of Extraversion, and the implications of this finding for decision-making behaviour. Turning to the “cool” system, Chapter 3 examines the role of effective performance monitoring in predicting real-world self-regulatory outcomes. Finally, Chapter 4 addresses the question of whether self-regulatory performance can be improved, reporting the effects of a goal-setting intervention on long-term decision-making. Results across the studies are discussed within an integrative model of self-regulation, situated within a social-personality neuroscience framework.

Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der seit Beginn der neunziger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts kontinuierlich gestiegenen Erwerbspartizipation von Studierenden während der Vorlesungszeit. Die Entwicklung dieses Verhaltens wurde vor dem Hintergrund der gesunkenen Bereitschaft zum Belohnungsaufschub theoretisch erklärt und empirisch untersucht. Dazu wurde eine Online-Befragung durchgeführt, an der sich 529 Studierende aus verschiedenen deutschen Städten beteiligten. Resultierend aus der statistischen Analyse der gewonnenen Daten zeigte sich, dass die Stärke der psychischen Belastungen, die durch einen Belohnungsaufschub entstehen, den Umfang der wöchentlich investierten Zeit in einen studentischen Erwerb beeinflussen. Weitere Effekte gingen bei der Erklärung der Bedingungen, die die Intensität eines studentischen Erwerbs befördern, von konsumtiven und hedonistischen Wertorientierungen der Studierenden aus. Darüber hinaus spielen vorstrukturierende, studienbezogene Maßnahmen in den Fachbereichen der Hochschulen, antizipierte berufsperspektivische Unwägbarkeiten auf dem Arbeitsmarkt sowie Bestrebungen der Studierenden hinsichtlich größerer finanzieller Unabhängigkeit eine Rolle bei der Ausübung von Nebenjobs.

Self-control has been measured using a variety of methods including self-report measures, cognitive inhibition tasks, delay discounting and delay of gratification tasks, and persistence and willpower tasks. Although these are all theoretically linked to processes involved in self-control, recent evidence has shown that these diverse measurement techniques relate only minimally to one another. Assuming that self-control is a reflective construct, this would indicate that many of these tasks are poor indicators of self-control. The present research challenges the common assumption that self-control is a reflective construct and instead proposes that self-control is a formative construct. Conceptualizing self-control as a formative construct could reconcile some of the inconsistencies in the literature, in particular the fact that many indicators for self-control do not correlate highly. To examine the possibility of a formative model of self-control, this research examines 13 commonly used measures of self-control and investigates indicator intercorrelations, indicator relationships with the theoretical consequences of self-control, and performs a vanishing tetrad test (Bollen & Ting, 2000). Results show that in general, indicator intercorrelations are low and nonsignificant as well as indictor correlations with theorized construct consequences. The results of the vanishing tetrad test suggest a reflective interpretation of self-control, but concerns with uniformly low covariances between indicators limit the interpretation of this test.

No description available.