published_or_final_version / Paediatrics / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / abstract / Pathology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / abstract / Pathology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Chlamydia is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes a wide spectrum of diseases worldwide. At present, there are no vaccines to prevent chlamydial infections due to poor understanding of how anti-chlamydial immunity ensues. In this study, we employed a variety of in vitro and in vivo systems, including knockout (KO) mice and adoptive transfer, to investigate the role of lung dendritic cells (LDCs) and their relationship with innate lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) and invariant NKT (iNKT) cells, in host defense against chlamydial lung infections in mice. We found that iNKT cells altered the phenotype and cytokine production pattern of LDCs following C. pneumoniae infection. Adoptive transfer of LDCs from infected Jα18-KO mice, which lack iNKT cells, into naïve wild-type (WT) mice promoted Th2 (IL-4) immunity following infection challenge, whereas the transfer of LDCs from the infected WT mice induced protective Th1/Tc1 (IFN-γ) immunity. On the other hand, upon adoptive transfer, LDCs from C. muridarum-infected NK-cell-depleted mice (NK-LDCs) conferred reduced protection after chlamydial challenge than the recipients of LDCs from infected sham-treated mice (NK+LDCs). NK+LDC recipients exhibited an enhanced Th1/Th17, in contrast to Th2, response compared to the NK-LDC recipients. In coculture experiments, NK cells isolated from the infected mice promoted IL-12p70, IL-6, and IL-23 production by LDCs through NKG2D receptor signaling. These findings indicate that iNKT and NK cells condition LDCs to confer protective Th1/Tc1/Th17 immunity against chlamydial lung infection. We also analyzed the contribution of major LDC subsets, CD103+ and CD11bhi LDCs, in host defense against C. muridarum infection. We found that CD103+ and CD11bhi LDC subsets expanded following chlamydial infection. CD103+ LDCs showed higher expression of costimulatory molecules and greater production of Th1- and Th17-inducing cytokines (IL-12, IL-6 and IL-23) than CD11bhi LDCs. Coculture of Chlamydia-specific CD4+ T cells with LDC subsets revealed that the T cells cultured with CD103+ LDCs produced larger amounts of IFN-γ and IL-17 compared to those with CD11bhi LDCs. To test their function in vivo, we isolated CD103+ and CD11bhi LDC subsets from infected mice and transferred them into naïve syngeneic mice that received chlamydial challenge. CD103+ LDC-recipients showed better protection, as evidenced by their reduced body weight loss, bacterial burden and lung pathology, than CD11bhi LDC recipients. Mice that received CD103+, compared to CD11bhi, LDCs produced enhanced Th1/Th17 cytokines (IFN-γ and IL-17) in the lung and the MLNs. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that CD103+ LDCs are more efficient in inducing Th1/Th17 immunity to chlamydial infection than CD11bhi LDCs. Taken together, our findings have provided direct in vivo evidence on the role of LDCs and their conditioning by iNKT and NK cells in generating mucosal T-cell immunity against a bacterial lung infection. The findings have added new knowledge to the field of lung immunology, which have implications for developing prophylactic and/or therapeutic strategies against respiratory diseases. / October 2015

Dendritic cells (DCs) comprise a heterogeneous population of mononuclear phagocytes that play a critical role in both innate and adaptive immunity. DCs in mice can be divided into two main types. Plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) secrete type I interferons (IFN-α/β) in response to viruses. Classical or conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) are highly adept at Ag presentation. There are two main subsets of cDCs; the CD11b+ cDC subset presents exogenous Ag to CD4+ T cells on major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) and the CD8α+/CD103+ cDCs uniquely capable of cross-presenting exogenous Ag to CD8+ T cells on MHCI. Functional equivalents of both subsets have been identified in humans and have been designated cDC2 and cDC1, respectively. All DCs develop from progenitors found in the bone marrow (BM) by a process directed primarily by the cytokine Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand (FL). The specification of DC types is driven by several transcription factors such as IRF8, while terminal cDC differentiation is guided by tissue-specific signals mediated through signaling pathways such as Notch and lymphotoxin-β. Notch is an evolutionarily conserved pathway of cell-cell communication that plays an essential role in the development of immune cell types, including T and B lymphocytes. DC-specific gene targeting, has been used to establish the role of Notch2 receptor signaling in the differentiation of cDC2 subset in the spleen and intestine and splenic cDC1. Because primary cDCs, particularly cDC1, are rare in vivo their study and use in translational applications require methods to generate functional cDC subsets in vitro. Commonly used cultures of primary BM with the cytokines FL or granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) produce a mixture of pDC, cDC2 and cDC1-like cells, or cDC2-like cells and macrophages, respectively. Thus, new approaches are needed to yield high numbers of fully differentiated cDCs, particularly of mature cDC1. Given the critical role of Notch signaling in cDC differentiation in vivo, I hypothesized that it would facilitate cDC differentiation in vitro. Indeed, coculture of murine primary BM cells with OP9 stromal cells expressing Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (OP9-DL1) facilitated the generation of bona fide, IRF8-dependent CD8α+ CD103+ Dec205+ cDC1 with an expression profile resembling ex vivo cDC1. Critically, the resulting cDC1 showed improved Ccr7-dependent migration, superior T cell cross-priming capacity and antitumor vaccination in vivo. Further, OP9-DL1 cocultures of immortalized progenitors allowed for the de novo generation CD8α+ cDC1. This discovery can help further our understanding of the mechanisms of DC differentiation while providing a tool to allow for the generation of unlimited numbers of cDCs for functional studies. Further, as cDC1 are essential for the cross-priming of cytotoxic T cells against tumors, they hold great promise as cellular vaccines. However, the use of DCs in clinical applications has been hampered by inadequate methods to generate large quantities of functionally mature cDC1 in vitro. As such, these findings should help to advance the use of cDCs in translational and therapeutic applications, such as antitumor vaccination and immunotherapy.

Viral protein R (Vpr) is an evolutionarily conserved but poorly understood protein encoded by all primate lentiviruses, including the lineages that gave rise to both human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2), the causative agents of AIDS in humans. In this work, I sought to define the contribution of primate lentiviral Vpr to viral replication and evasion from cell-intrinsic antiviral defenses. I found that HIV-1 infection of human dendritic cells (MDDCs) is substantially attenuated upon infection with Vpr-deficient (HIV-1/ΔVpr) virus compared to wild-type (WT) infection. This replication defect to HIV-1/ΔVpr is evident in a single round of infection, results in reduced levels of viral transcription, and is relieved upon complementation by virion-associated Vpr. The block to transcription is alleviated through Vpr-engagement with the Cul4A/DCAF/DDB1 (DCAFCRL4) ubiquitin ligase complex and a yet-to-be identified host factor, hypothesized to induce the DNA damage response (DDR) in infected cells. MDDCs are critical immune cells that are poised to detect invading viruses through a variety of cell-intrinsic antiviral sensors, resulting in the production of type I interferon (IFN) and restriction of virus replication. Surprisingly, infection of MDDCs with Vpr-deficient lentiviruses (HIV-2 or SIVmac) resulted in production of type I IFN indicating that this pathway is targeted by Vpr. I determined that signaling cascades that induce NF-κB-dependent type I IFN production are triggered in response to lentiviral integration, an obligatory process in lentivirus life cycle that results in host DNA lesions and subsequent repair by cellular DNA repair machinery. I also demonstrated that mutations in SIVmac Vpr that ablate the ability to initiate DDR are unable to counteract the antiviral type I IFN response. Together, our work suggests the existence of a novel host factor that detects lentiviral integration in MDDCs to trigger an innate immune response that blocks virus dissemination. I hypothesize that Vpr by overcoming this cell intrinsic block to integration would be a critical viral adaptation to facilitate cross-species transmission that resulted in the HIV pandemic. / 2018-11-01T00:00:00Z

by Tang Mei Kuen. / "May 1999." / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 134-179). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / Abstracts in English and Chinese.

Infection with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni leads to chronic inflammation and Th2 mediated fibrosis, which result in severe pathology characterised by hepatosplenomegaly. Dendritic cells (DCs) are adept initiators of CD4+ T cell responses, but their fundamental importance in this regard in Th2 settings remains to be demonstrated. Indeed, the role of DCs at different stages of infection with S. mansoni is also yet to be determined. In addition, the importance of the interaction of DCs with tissue factors in the tissue microenvironment on the development of Th2 response to S. mansoni antigens is an area of active research and debate. This thesis is comprises of four studies. The first study tackles the involvement and importance of DCs in the induction and development of Th2 responses against S. mansoni using CD11c–diphtheria toxin receptor mice to deplete CD11c+ cells during the priming stage of the CD4+ Th2 response against S. mansoni. Diphtheria toxin treatment significantly depleted CD11c+ DCs from all tissues tested, with 70-80% efficacy. Even this incomplete depletion resulted in dramatically impaired CD4+ T cell production of Th2 cytokines, altering the balance of the immune response and causing a shift towards IFN-γ production. In contrast, basophil depletion using Mar-1 antibody had no measurable effect on Th2 induction in this system. These data underline the vital role that CD11c+ antigen presenting cells can play in orchestrating Th2 development against helminth infection in vivo, a response that is ordinarily balanced so as to prevent the potentially damaging production of inflammatory cytokines. The second study addresses whether the exposure of DCs to the cercarial stage of the parasite is critical for either parasite survival or the subsequent development of the Th2 immune response against later stages of infection. It was found that CD11c depletion prior to infection resulted in increased parasite survival, but did not impair the development of CD4+ T cell Th2 response later in infection. The third study asked whether DCs continue to be necessary for the maintenance of the chronic immune response during infection with S. mansoni. In contrast, depletion of CD11c+ cells during the initiation (4 to 6 weeks) or maintenance (6 to 8 weeks or 12 to 14 weeks) of Th2 response to eggs, resulted in severely impaired Th2 cytokine production. Interestingly, depletion during the later stages of infection led to dramatic weight loss and mortality, coincident with impaired CD4+ T cell responses. These data suggest that CD11c+ antigen presenting cells, in addition to being important in the early priming phase, also play a vital role in the maintenance and homeostasis of chronic CD4+ T cell responses in a Th2 infection setting, the disruption of which can have lethal consequences. The final study in this thesis aimed to establish whether the tissue factor thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) is able to enhance or modulate the Th2 responses initiated by DCs stimulated with SEA. Contrary to previous studies, it was found that BMDCs do not become phenotypically activated by TSLP, in particular, they do not up-regulate the costimulatory molecule OX40L, nor does TSLP suppress the production of IL-12p40 or IL-12p70 in response to LPS or CpG. Further, exposure to TSLP had no impact on DC cytokine production or survival. Irrespective of this unaltered profile in vitro, TSLP exposed DCs transferred in vivo induced the production of significantly more Th1 and Th2 cytokines from polyclonally restimulated splenocytes than DCs exposed to medium alone. In addition to this, TSLP altered the kinetic of the immune response induced by DCs stimulated with the soluble egg antigen (SEA) of S. mansoni. This was characterised by the antigen specific production of T cell cytokines starting more rapidly than with non-TSLP treated control DCs. The alteration in the kinetics of the immune response was not restricted to Th2 antigens and was also seen to some extent in Propionibacterium acnes stimulated DCs. This suggests a possible role for TSLP in either inducing faster DC migration or greater production of T cell chemoattractants and thus, enhancing the rate of DC interaction with T cells.

The tumour necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily is a group of cytokines that orchestrate a variety of functions, both in the development of the architecture of immune organs and of the immune response. The mammalian TNF superfamily consists of 19 ligands and 29 receptors, whereas in the chicken only 10 ligands and 15 receptors are present. Chickens do not develop lymph nodes, possibly due to the absence of the lymphotoxin genes (TNF superfamily members) in their genome. New members of the chicken TNF superfamily have recently been identified in the genome, namely chicken receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (chRANKL), its signalling receptor, chRANK, and its decoy receptor, osteoprotegerin (chOPG). In mammals, RANKL and RANK are transmembrane proteins expressed on the surface of Th1 cells and mature dendritic cells (DC), respectively. OPG is expressed as a soluble protein from osteoblasts and DC, regulating the interaction between RANKL and RANK. To investigate the bioactivity of this triad of molecules, the extracellular soluble domains of chRANKL and chRANK and full-length chOPG were identified and cDNAs cloned. ChRANKL, chRANK and chOPG mRNA are ubiquitously expressed across non-lymphoid and lymphoid tissues and immune cells in the chicken. Similar to mammals, chRANK and chOPG mRNA expression levels are upregulated in mature bone marrow-derived DC (BMDC). ChRANKL transcription is regulated by Ca2+-mobilisation and is further enhanced by the activation of the protein kinase C pathway, as seen in mammals. The biological activities of chRANKL, chRANK and chOPG were investigated by the production of recombinant soluble fusion proteins. The extracellular, TNF-homology, domain of chRANKL (schRANKL) was sub-cloned into a modified pCI-neo vector expressing an in-frame isoleucine zipper to encourage trimer formation. FLAG-tagged schRANKL produced in COS-7 cells predominantly forms homotrimers and chOPG is expressed as homodimers, both signatures of their mammalian TNF superfamily orthologues. SchRANKL enhances the mRNA expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in mature BMDC and BM-derived macrophages (BMDM). Pre-incubation with soluble chRANK-Fc or chOPG-Fc blocked the schRANKL-mediated increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression levels in BMDC. Expression of surface markers on BMDC and BMDM were not affected by schRANKL treatment. SchRANKL enhances the survival rates of BMDC and BMDM and can drive osteoclast differentiation from monocyte/macrophage progenitor cells. The chRANKL signalling receptor, chRANK, does not contain an intracellular catalytic domain but requires the binding of intracellular TNF receptor-associated factors (TRAF) to initiate signalling. TRAFs are a family of seven proteins (TRAF1-7) grouped due to their highly conserved RING domains, zinc finger domains, TRAF-N and TRAF-C domains. ChRANK possesses four of the five TRAF peptide-binding motifs found in mammalian RANK. The "missing" chRANK TRAF peptide-binding motif is TRAF6-specific, a vital protein for RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis. All seven members of the mammalian TRAF family are present in the chicken genome. To investigate the conservation of RANK-specific TRAF signalling proteins, chicken TRAF2 (chTRAF2), chTRAF5, chTRAF6 and a newly found member, chTRAF7, were identified and their cDNAs cloned. ChTRAF5, chTRAF6 and chTRAF7 had mRNA expression patterns, in non-lymphoid and lymphoid tissues and in a number of immune cells, similar to their orthologues in mammals. Interestingly, chTRAF2 has two variants, the full-length chTRAF2 and a novel isoform (chTRAF2S) lacking exon 4. ChTRAF2S lacks a portion of zinger finger one, all of zinc finger two and a portion of zinc finger three, producing a protein with a hybrid of zinc fingers 1 and 3 and intact zinc fingers 4 and 5. RT-PCR analyses indicated differential expression of both of the chTRAF2 isoforms in a number of non-lymphoid and lymphoid tissues, splenocyte subsets and in a kinetic study of ConA-stimulated splenocytes. ChTRAF2S is biologically active compared to chTRAF2, inducing higher levels of NF-κB activation. Co-transfections indicate that chTRAF2 may regulate chTRAF2S bioactivity as no synergistic effect was identified when cells were transfected with both isoforms. Knowledge gained from this study will help work to further dissect the interactions between chRANKL-expressing T cells and chRANK-expressing DC to drive Th1 immune responses and to understand how the chicken mounts an effective immune response while expressing a minimal essential repertoire of the TNF superfamily.

Le transfert de prions des aliments dans la muqueuse et leur passage de la muqueuse vers le système nerveux constituent des chaînons manquants dans la compréhension de la pathogenèse des ESST. Ces événements cruciaux se déroulent à des stades très précoces de linfection et restent sans signes cliniques. Lexplication de ces phénomènes permettrait de mieux appréhender les mécanismes infectieux et de mettre en place des traitements. élucidation Ce travail repose sur des observations largement étayées : - lors dune infection orale par des prions, les plaques de Peyer, spécialisées dans léchantillonnage et le traitement déléments transitant dans liléon, sont des zones privilégiées de passage dagents infectieux de la lumière vers la muqueuse intestinale. - lagent responsable des maladies à prions est retenu et répliqué par des cellules du système immunitaire comme les cellules folliculaires dendritiques. Laccumulation de prions est en effet mise en évidence dans les organes lymphoïdes secondaires dorganismes infectés. - en cas dinfection par voie orale par des prions, le processus de neuroinvasion débute dans le système nerveux périphérique et se propage vers le système nerveux central par les fibres sympathiques et parasympathiques. Ces différentes observations sont à la base de notre hypothèse de travail : les cellules dendritiques capteraient les prions au niveau de la lumière des plaques de Peyer, migreraient dans les tissus lymphoïdes drainants et les transmettraient aux cellules folliculaires dendritiques et/ou aux fibres nerveuses périphériques. En véhiculant les prions, elles seraient à la base à la fois de la lymphoinvasion et de la neuroinvasion. Pour vérifier notre hypothèse nous avons investigué plusieurs pistes : létude comparative du phénotype et la localisation des cellules dendritiques des plaques de Peyer chez les souris saines et les souris infectées par les prions. la localisation des zones de contact entre cellules dendritiques et des fibres nerveuses au sein des organes lymphoïdes secondaires de souris infectées versus saines. lélaboration et létude dun modèle in vitro murin de transmission de prions des cellules dendritiques aux cellules nerveuses périphériques. Le phénotype et la localisation des cellules dendritiques des plaques de Peyer durant la phase préclinique dinduction orale dune ESST ont été analysés selon plusieurs paramètres. Les résultats seront décrits et discutés dans le chapitre 1. Lépithélium associé aux follicules lymphoïdes des plaques de Peyer est une zone de transcytose déléments qui transitent dans le tractus intestinal. On y distingue des entérocytes, des cellules M et des cellules dendritiques. Une attention particulière a été portée aux cellules dendritiques localisées dans lépithélium à différents temps durant une infection par des prions. Une analyse quantitative et phénotypique de cette population particulière de cellules a été réalisée dans la perspective de classer cette population parmi les sous-populations de cellules dendritiques connues. Lexpression membranaire de la protéine prion cellulaire et la détection de la forme totale (PrPc + PrPsc) à la surface de ces cellules dendritiques des plaques de Peyer a été examinée. Les zones de contacts entre DC et FDC, lieux possibles de dissémination des prions au sein des organes lymphoïdes, ont été étudiées de façon quantitative. En vue de connaître les sites potentiels de neuroinvasion, nous avons établi dans le chapitre 2 une topographie des fibres nerveuses au sein des plaques de Peyer, des ganglions mésentériques et de la rate. Nous avons comparé les observations faites sur des souris saines, des souris infectées avec prions et des souris transgéniques. Ensuite, nous avons tenté de mettre en évidence des contacts entre les cellules dendritiques et les fibres nerveuses. La localisation des connexions neuro-immunes dans les organes lymphoïdes a particulièrement retenu notre attention. Les connexions entre cellules dendritiques et les fibres nerveuses décrites dans le chapitre 2 fournissent des informations de localisation. Elles permettent donc denvisager des sites potentiels de neuroinvasion mais elles ne renseignent pas sur la transmission des prions dun type cellulaire à lautre. En particulier la dissémination de lagent pathologique des DC aux neurones périphériques. Le chapitre 3 détaille nos travaux consacrés à lélaboration dun modèle in vitro reproduisant des interfaces entre des DC et des cellules nerveuses. Dans un premier temps, nous avons évalué la validité du modèle par rapport à la situation in vivo. Dans un second temps, les cellules dendritiques infectées par les prions ont été cultivées au contact de neurones issus des ganglions de la racine dorsale, ceux-là mêmes qui sont infectés in vivo, pour étudier la transmission des prions des DC aux neurones du système nerveux périphérique.