The objective of this study was to determine the influence of market type and sampling time on Salmonella and Listeria prevalence and microbiological quality of 540 beef, pork, and whole chicken samples collected in 6 supermarkets (SM), 6 indoor markets (IM), and 6 open markets (OM) at opening (T0) and 4 h after the opening (T4) in Vietnam. Salmonella and Listeria prevalence ranged from 30.4 to 71.0% and 56.6 to 99.9 %, respectively, in beef, pork, and chicken in Vietnam. Aerobic bacteria counts ranged from 10.5 to 11.6 log CFU/g, whereas, E. coli and coliform counts ranged from 7.2 to 11.4 log CFU/g in beef, pork, and chicken in Vietnam. E. coli counts were influenced by the interaction of market type and sampling time in beef and pork. Market characteristic data that were considered relevant to microbiological safety of fresh meat and poultry products were collected for individual samples.

Background. The use of mobile technology has become more prevalent within the delivery of healthcare (m-health) within the developing world. Its use is considered convenient and innovative, but little is known about its effectiveness. Although promising, there is a lack of literature pertaining to its overall effectiveness. Purpose. This study takes the perspectives of threes groups of key stakeholders to describe the m-health service and the perceived benefits of using the mobile health technology implemented by BRAC in the urban slums of Korail, within the capital city: Dhaka, Bangladesh. Methods. The study uses an exploratory descriptive case study design. The methodology includes demographic questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews. The sample included three groups: the BRAC developers, the community health workers (CHWs) and the villagers. Conclusion. This study described the perspectives of those involved with the service, defining the m-health service as well as highlighting four major themes: strengths and benefits, knowledge and awareness, challenges and barriers and areas of improvement. The emerging themes found in the study provide paradigms of what to expect when implementing pilot m-health innovation and suggests direction for growth and sustainability. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / The purpose of the study is to understand the new mobile health (m-health) service started by BRAC in the urban slums of Dhaka Bangladesh. This is carried out by asking questions to the people who use the service the most: the BRAC developers, the community health workers (CHWs) and the villagers.

The need for improving cost estimation for solid waste management (SWM) is particularly strong in emerging (industrialising) economies where problems of solid waste are severe, expectations for improvements are high, but finances are constrained. Using literature-based evaluation, traditional methods used to estimate costs of SWM in industrialising regions are classified into two categories- the unit cost method and benchmarking techniques. These current approaches are unable to satisfy two important SWM objectives in industrialising regions- 1. provide an understanding of variables affecting costs of SWM in developing countries, which in turn helps in developing a sound financing strategy, and 2. ensure that scarce financial resources are used to best effect while planning for increasing populations, and raising service levels in developing countries The development of cost models using the cost function approach, which are sometimes used as a cost estimation technique for developed countries' waste management case studies, is deemed as an improvement over current cost estimation approaches for SWM used in industrialising regions. The usefulness, applications and limitations of the cost function approach for developing countries is shown in four ways. First, the application of the cost function methodology to a developing country dataset is shown using data from approximately 300 Indian municipalities. Second, future developmental scenario analyses is conducted at the city level to estimate marginal costs to improve solid waste management (SWM) to handle increasing populations and to raise the level of service. Third, the basic intents for conducting cost function analyses are categorised based on the rich experiences from another public service with many similar characteristics, namely the healthcare sector, and translated for easy understanding for future solid waste engineers. Finally, the potential implications of the health care analyses on the developing city case study demonstrates the way forward in terms of the most important data that needs to be collected and future cost analyses that needs to be conducted. The results from this work indicate a strong need for careful selection and management of data, and awareness of the challenges that developing country datasets pose. The thesis is designed to encourage planners in developing countries to ditch heuristic thinking when planning improvements to SWM, and instead adopt modern rational methods to make cost-wise decisions. Specifically, this thesis provides solid waste management analysts the necessary tools to gather, analyse and interpret cost information in a way that facilitates planning of restricted finances in industrialising regions.

The internationalization of SMEs can be expected to gain further momentum because the world economy is becoming increasingly integrated with continuing declines in government-imposed barriers and continuing advances in technology. Meanwhile, more and more SMEs from developing countries start to increase their overseas business. The purpose of this thesis is to study or investigate how SMEs develop and implement their internationalization strategies. To be able to illuminate this question in more detail, essential factors will be looked upon in this paper. We choose the export business as a main entry mode due to SMEs general lack of resources. Generic strategies and marketing mix analysis will also be discussed in the paper in order to obtain essential factors which influence performance of SMEs from developing countries which internationalize their business.Only a qualitative study was carried out to help determine the purpose of the paper, where data was collected through a real case study which was an Exporting Company from a developing country. The primary data was collected through interviews via email with the company founder, accounting manager, manufacturing manager and sales managers, complemented with secondary data collected from internet sources.The empirical findings and analysis has brought to light some interesting conclusions. Export can be a smart choice for SMEs, because they lack of resources at the initial period. Whether the choice is direct export or indirect export, the driving force of SMEs from developing countries are their natural dispositions. Mixed generic strategy can help SMEs conquer disadvantages. While marketing mix theory can also help SMEs aim at niche markets more clearly.Thus, exporting as the most suitable entry mode for SMEs, while mixed generic strategies and marketing mix theory also should be taken into consideration. Therefore the success of internationalization process will be increased for SMEs from developing countries.

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MSc (Med), Population-Based Field Epidemiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand / Background Complications of childbirth and pregnancy are leading causes of death among women of reproductive age. Worldwide, developing countries account for ninety-nine percent of maternal deaths. The United Nations’ fifth millennium development goal (MDG-5) is to reduce maternal mortality ratio by three fourths by 2015. Aim The aim of this study is to explore the levels, trends, causes and risk factors associated with maternal mortality as put forward by World Health Organization (WHO) in rural settings of Tanzania. Specific objectives To establish the trend of maternal mortality ratios in Rufiji health and demographic surveillance system (RHDSS) during the period 2002-2006. To determine the main causes of maternal deaths in RHDSS during the period 2002-2006. To determine the risk factors associated with maternal mortality RHDSS during the period 2002-2006. Method Secondary data analysis based on the longitudinal database from Rufiji Health and Demographic Surveillance System was used to study the risk factors and causes of maternal death. Data for a period of 5 years between 2002-2006 was used. A total of 26 427 women v aged 15-49 years were included in the study; 64 died and there were 15 548 live births. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to assess the risk factors associated with maternal deaths. Results Maternal mortality ratio was 412 per 100 000 live births. The main causes of death were haemorrhage (28%), eclampsia (19%) and puerperal sepsis (8%). Maternal age and marital status were associated with maternal mortality. An increased risk of 154% for maternal death was found for women aged 30-39 versus 15-19 years (HR=2.54, 95% CI=1.001- 6.445). Married women had a protective effect of 62% over unmarried ones (HR=0.38, 95% CI=0.176-0.839). These findings were statistically significant at the 5% level. Conclusion This analysis reinforced previous findings pointing to the fact that haemorrhage and eclampsia are the leading causes of maternal mortality in Tanzania and other developing countries. This indicates the need for better antenatal and obstetric care, particularly for women over thirty years of age, as well as implementing health care delivery strategies according to the regional specific risk factors of maternal deaths and not the global factors.

This research consists of a broad study in three parts of the social and environmental reporting practices of organisations operating in or sourcing products from a developing country, in this case Bangladesh. The first part of this study explores the social and environmental disclosure practices of the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA), the body responsible for organising the activities of 4,200 entities involved in the export of garments from Bangladesh. By way of interview, this part documents the opinions of numerous senior executives from the BGMEA with regard to any changes in the degree of social and environmental pressures since 1985. Utilising a complementary theoretical perspective that includes legitimacy theory, stakeholder theory and institutional theory this part then performs an analysis of the BGMEA's annual reports (1987-2005), to explore the link between the perceived pressures and changes entailed therein and th e social and environmental disclosure practices of the BGMEA across the period of analysis. The results show that the disclosure practices of BGMEA appear to be directly driven by the changing expectations of multinational buying companies- the group deemed to be the most powerful stakeholder group. This section is the first known study to interview managers from a large organisation in a developing country about shifting stakeholder expectations and then to link these changing expectations to annual report disclosures across an extended period of analysis. The findings then directly lead to the second major part of this thesis which investigates the social and environmental disclosure practices of two major multinational buying companies: Nike and H&M. Adopting a joint consideration of legitimacy theory and media agenda setting theory, this second part investigates the linkage between negative media attention and positive corporate social and environmental disclosures over a 19 year period. The results supp ort the view that for those industry-related social and environmental issues that attract the greatest amount of negative media attention, these companies react by providing positive social and environmental disclosures. The results were particularly significant in relation to labour practices in developing countries-the issue that attracts the greatest amount of negative media attention for the companies in question. While the second part demonstrates that the media influences particular disclosure practices, the third part of the thesis shows what drives the media. Based on the speculation provided in the second part, the third part tests the proposition that the media is an important ally of NGOs in their quest to influence change in corporate accountabilities. Through the use of interviews, the results of this part of the study provide evidence to support previously untested perspectives about NGOs' utilisation of the media. The results reveal that NGOs use the media because the media is responsible for creating real changes in the operations and disclosure policies of organisations sourcing products from Bangladesh. The various pressures impacting the activities of organisations operating in or sourcing products from developing countries constitutes a fascinating area of investigation, and it is hoped that this study will motivate further research in this area.

<p>During our study trip to Tanzania we discovered one of the great issues for farmers to be need of running water. So we asked ourselves: How can water from Lake Victoria be transported to the small scale farmer’s household and farm in the most optimized way? During the stay in North West of Tanzania we made field trips to the rural areas in Mara Region in order to understand the farmers who are the potential users. We performed semi structured interviews and observations during the whole field study. We also came to the conclusion that wind is a good source of power which can be used to pump water. The wind comes in from Lake Victoria in the same direction everyday. So therefore we decided to construct a water pumping wind power station for small scale farmers.</p>

During our study trip to Tanzania we discovered one of the great issues for farmers to be need of running water. So we asked ourselves: How can water from Lake Victoria be transported to the small scale farmer’s household and farm in the most optimized way? During the stay in North West of Tanzania we made field trips to the rural areas in Mara Region in order to understand the farmers who are the potential users. We performed semi structured interviews and observations during the whole field study. We also came to the conclusion that wind is a good source of power which can be used to pump water. The wind comes in from Lake Victoria in the same direction everyday. So therefore we decided to construct a water pumping wind power station for small scale farmers.

Diagnosis of paediatric HIV infection presents a spectrum of challenges particularly in countries where resources are constrained. This program of research aims to illuminate epidemiological and clinical aspects of HIV diagnosis in resource limited settings focusing in particular on the nation of Papua New Guinea (PNG). This body of work commences with an exploration of current literature pertaining to diagnosis of HIV infection in resource constrained settings. This exploration encompasses the current epidemiological data available on HIV infection in the paediatric population worldwide, currently available methods of diagnosis and other aspects of diagnosis of paediatric HIV infection in developing nations including sampling considerations, breast feeding, health services, human resources and the relationship between early diagnosis and early treatment. The next chapter presents an epidemiological analysis of the HIV epidemic in PNG and a description of the paediatric services at Port Moresby General Hospital (PMGH) the site for most of the research presented in the thesis. The original research presented in the thesis begins with a report (Chapter 3) of a survey of paediatric diagnosis and treatment services in PNG in comparison to other countries in the Asia Pacific region. This is followed by an exploratory retrospective study elucidating factors associated with HIV testing and HIV positive serostatus in children admitted to PMGH. Selection for testing was found to be significantly associated with age, length of hospital stay and diagnoses of diarrhoea, malnutrition and oral candidiasis. Tuberculosis was associated with HIV positive serostatus. In advance of a prospective study to ascertain clinical predictors of HIV infection, a study to evaluate acceptability of HIV testing amongst carers of children admitted to PMGH was undertaken. Testing was acceptable to the majority of carers interviewed. This program of research concludes with a prospective cross-sectional study revealing low weight for age, persistent fever, lymphadenopathy and oral candidiasis to be independent predictors of HIV infection in children admitted to PMGH. An algorithm for clinically directed screening of children for HIV infection in a hospital setting was subsequently developed. Finally evidence based clinical recommendations and suggestions for the direction of future research efforts were made.