No / A crystalline solid called a gas hydrate has gas molecules surrounded by water molecules. There are several gases with suitable structures for the production of hydrates, but methane-rich gas hydrates are more common and form in seas and on the ocean. The place of hydrates formation is usually the sediment of the ocean floor and the polar regions, which largely covered with ice. It is also found in large quantities in combination with ambient ice in the ever-frozen polar regions. The importance of gas hydrates is due to the great ability of gas hydrates in natural gas storage, which makes it attractive to use them for the purposes of storing and transporting natural gas and other gases as a competitor to liquefaction and condensing methods. Due to the significance potential of these reserves as the world's future energy supplier and their direct impact on changes in climate conditions due to the greenhouse effect of methane, as well as their geological risks during water hydrocarbon discoveries, marine science researchers have been studying them over the past few years. Acoustic and seismic methods are helpful instruments for measuring subterranean hydrated reserves because there is not the technology to measure hydrated reserves directly.

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Sub-salt oil and gas formations in deep-water northern Gulf of Mexico are high priority targets. Advances in seismic processing allow for high-resolution, below-salt imaging. Understanding the modes of salt emplacement provide insight into sub-salt traps and potential drilling hazards. A sub-salt sedimentary unit lies in the Keathley Canyon protraction. Autosutures created the transport-parallel lineaments of the upper surface of the unit. In addition, highly variable sediment aggradation rates created ramps, flats, and basal cutoffs along the base of the allochthon as salt and sediment competed for space. Seismic models identify modes of salt emplacement, salt/sediment interactions, and mechanisms responsible for the morphology. Petrophysical assessments highlight an abnormally pressured, dirty salt environment transitioning into a gouge zone. Dirty salt adds an element of difficulty to managing borehole pressures requiring a unique mud-weight plan designed to resist formation pressures without fracturing lithology.

Flow instabilities occur at all scales in planetary systems. In this thesis we examine three cases of such instabilities, on three very different length scales. In the first part, we test the idea that Archean granite-greenstone belts (GGBs) form by crustal diapirism, or Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities. GGBs are characterized by large granitic domes (50-100 km in diameter) embedded in narrow keel-shaped greenstones. They are ubiquitous in Archean (> 2.5 Ga) terrains, but rare thereafter. We performed finite element calculations for a visco-elastic, temperature-dependent, non-Newtonian crust under conditions appropriate for the Archean, which show that dense low-viscosity volcanics overlying a felsic basement will overturn diapirically in as little as 10 Ma, displacing as much as 60 % of the volcanics to the lower crust. This surprisingly fast overturn rate suggests that diapiric overturn dominated crustal tectonics in the hot conditions of the Early Earth, becoming less important as the Earth cooled. Moreover, the deposition of large volumes of wet basaltic volcanics to the lower crust may provide the source for the formation of the distinctly Archean granitic rocks which dominate Earth's oldest continents. The second part examines the origin of Venusian coronae, circular volcanic features unique to Venus. Coronae are thought to result from small instabilities (diapirs) from the core-mantle boundary, which are typical of stagnant-lid convection. However, most young coronae are located in a region surrounded by long-lived hotspots, typical of a more active style of mantle convection. Using analogue experiments in corn syrup heated from below, we show that the co-existence of diapirs and long-lived mantle plumes are a direct consequence of the catastrophic overturn of the cold Venusian lithosphere thought to have occurred ~ 700 Ma ago. In the last part we analyze the thermal effect of fluid flow through a full-scale experiment testing clay and concrete tunnel seals in a Deep Geological Repository for nuclear was finite element software, we were able to show that the formation of fissures in the heated chamber between the two seals effectively limited heat flow, and could explain the discrepancy between the predicted and measured temperatures.

Flow instabilities occur at all scales in planetary systems. In this thesis we examine three cases of such instabilities, on three very different length scales. In the first part, we test the idea that Archean granite-greenstone belts (GGBs) form by crustal diapirism, or Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities. GGBs are characterized by large granitic domes (50-100 km in diameter) embedded in narrow keel-shaped greenstones. They are ubiquitous in Archean (> 2.5 Ga) terrains, but rare thereafter. We performed finite element calculations for a visco-elastic, temperature-dependent, non-Newtonian crust under conditions appropriate for the Archean, which show that dense low-viscosity volcanics overlying a felsic basement will overturn diapirically in as little as 10 Ma, displacing as much as 60 % of the volcanics to the lower crust. This surprisingly fast overturn rate suggests that diapiric overturn dominated crustal tectonics in the hot conditions of the Early Earth, becoming less important as the Earth cooled. Moreover, the deposition of large volumes of wet basaltic volcanics to the lower crust may provide the source for the formation of the distinctly Archean granitic rocks which dominate Earth's oldest continents. The second part examines the origin of Venusian coronae, circular volcanic features unique to Venus. Coronae are thought to result from small instabilities (diapirs) from the core-mantle boundary, which are typical of stagnant-lid convection. However, most young coronae are located in a region surrounded by long-lived hotspots, typical of a more active style of mantle convection. Using analogue experiments in corn syrup heated from below, we show that the co-existence of diapirs and long-lived mantle plumes are a direct consequence of the catastrophic overturn of the cold Venusian lithosphere thought to have occurred ~ 700 Ma ago. In the last part we analyze the thermal effect of fluid flow through a full-scale experiment testing clay and concrete tunnel seals in a Deep Geological Repository for nuclear was finite element software, we were able to show that the formation of fissures in the heated chamber between the two seals effectively limited heat flow, and could explain the discrepancy between the predicted and measured temperatures.

Des panaches sont connus pour migrer à travers le manteau ductile et quasi-Newtonien ; alors que les dikes se fracturent et se propagent dans la lithosphère solide. Cependant, la lithosphère est en fait visco-élastique. Afin de déterminer ce qui se passe dans ce cas complexe, nous avons réalisé une étude expérimentale et numérique sur le développement de panaches thermiques dans des solutions aqueuses de Carbopol, un gel de polymères formant un réseau continu d'éponges microscopiques. Ce fluide est rhéofluidifiant et présente un seuil de contrainte σ₀, de sorte que l'écoulement ne se produit que si la contrainte locale dépasse cette valeur critique σ₀. En dessous de cette valeur, le fluide agit comme un solide élastique. Les propriétés rhéologiques des solutions peuvent être systématiquement ajustées en variant la concentration de Carbopol. Le dispositif consiste en une source locale de chaleur de puissance constante placée au centre d'une cuve cubique. Selon la valeur du rapport entre la contrainte d'origine thermique et la contrainte seuil, Y₀, on peut observer trois régimes différents. A faible Y₀<Yc₁, aucun mouvement n'est détecté ; tandis que pour Yc₁<Y₀<Yc₂ une cellule se développe, puis évolue vers un panache pour Y₀>Yc₂. Nous montrons que les paramètres critiques (Yc₁,Yc₂) dépendent fortement de la géométrie du chauffage. Des mesures simultanées de température et de champs de vitesse montrent que la morphologie du panache ressemble à un doigt, contrairement à la forme de champignon rencontrée dans les fluides newtoniens. Utilisant des simulations numériques avec une description purement visqueuse, où la rhéologie du fluide est décrite par un modèle de Herschel-Bulkley régularisé, sont suffisantes pour rendre compte de la dynamique du panache. Une étude détaillée des paramètres indiquent que la dynamique du panache est gouvernée par la compétition entre la contrainte seuil, la contrainte induite par la flottabilité et les contraintes visqueuses. Nous avons identifié deux paramètres adimensionnés : le paramètre seuil Ψ comparant la contrainte induite par la flottabilité et la contrainte seuil, et le nombre de Bingham Bi comparant la contrainte seuil et les contraintes visqueuses. Un panache ne peut s'élever que si les deux paramètres sont supercritiques, i.e. la contrainte induite par la flottabilité et les contraintes visqueuses sont plus importantes que la contrainte seuil. Par conséquent, le panache peut s'arrêter avant d'atteindre la surface. Des lois d'échelles dans le conduit du panache ont été déterminées pour la vitesse, la température et la taille de la région cisaillée en régime permanent. Elles décrivent raisonnablement le comportement du conduit bien que seul l'effet rhéofluidifiant soit pris en compte. L'application de ces paramètres adimensionnés à la Terre contraignent significativement la limite de plasticité du manteau et de la lithosphère. La contrainte seuil maximale qui permet à une instabilité thermique de pénétrer dans la lithosphère ou le manteau supérieur est entre 100 kPa et 100 MPa, et elle dépend fortement de la taille et de l'anomalie de densité de l'intrusion. / Plumes are known to migrate through the ductile quasi-Newtonian mantle, while dikes fracture and propagate through the solid lithosphere. However, depending on the timescale, the lithosphere presents solid as well as viscous properties. To determine what happens in the complex case, where instabilities propagate through a visco-elastic matrix, we performed a combined study of laboratory experiments and numerical simulations. Here we investigate the development of thermal plumes in aqueous solutions of Carbopol, a polymer gel, forming a continuous network of micrometric sponges. This fluid is shear thinning and has a yield-stress σ₀, whereby flow occurs only if the local stress exceeds this critical value σ₀. Below this value, the fluid acts as an elastic solid. The rheological properties of the solutions can be systematically varied by varying the Carbopol concentration. The setup consists of a localized heat-source operated at constant power, placed at the centre of a square tank. Depending on the ratio of the thermally induced stresses and the yield stress, Y₀, three different regimes may be obtained. For low Y₀<Yc₁ no motion occurs, whereas for Yc₁<Y₀<Yc₂ a cell develops, that evolves into a plume for Y₀>Yc₂. We show that the critical parameters (Yc₁,Yc₂) strongly depend on the geometry of the heating. Combined temperature and velocity field measurements show that the morphology of the plume resembles a finger, contrary to the mushroom-like shape encountered in Newtonian fluids. Numerical simulations using a purely viscous description, where the rheology of the fluid is described by a regularized Herschel-Bulkley model, are sufficient to capture the plume dynamics. A detailed parametric study shows that the plume dynamics are governed by the interplay between yield stress, buoyancy induced stress and viscous stresses. We identify two non-dimensional parameters: the yield parameter Ψ comparing the buoyancy induced stress to the yield stress, and the Bingham number Bi comparing the yield stress to the viscous stresses. We show that a plume can rise only if both parameters are supercritical, i.e. if buoyancy induced stress and viscous stresses each overcome the yield stress. Therefore the plume may come to a halt before it reaches the surface. We propose scaling laws for the plume stem velocity, temperature and the size of the shear zone in the steady state. We show that the scaling laws describe the behaviour in the plume stem reasonably well, if the yield stress is neglected and only the shear thinning behaviour is taken into account. Applying the non-dimensional parameters to Earth places severe constraints on the strength of mantle and lithosphere. The maximum strength that allows for thermal instabilities to penetrate the lithosphere or upper mantle is in between 100 kPa and 100 MPa, and strongly depends on the size and buoyancy of the anomaly.

Le Haut-Atlas central est un bassin salifère structuré autour d’étroites rides diapiriques (i.e. salt walls) orientées ENE-OSO qui bordent de larges mini-bassins. L’impact de la compression cénozoïque étant relativement limitée, les structures diapiriques y sont particulièrement bien préservées. L’objectif de la thèse est d’analyser les relations entre la sédimentation et la croissance des rides diapiriques dans le cadre imposé par l’évolution du système sédimentaire, durant le Jurassique inférieur et moyen, dans la région d’Imilchil, au cœur du haut-Atlas central. Le Lias-Dogger enregistre le comblement du bassin atlasique à travers six séquences de transgression-régression de troisième ordre. Cette grande tendance régressive se manifeste par la succession de trois systèmes de dépôts. Un système carbonaté, du Toarcien au Bajocien supérieur, dont l’éventail de faciès oscille entre la rampe moyenne et la rampe externe distale. Au Bajocien supérieur l’apport de sédiments terrigènes dans le bassin provoque la disparition du système carbonaté qui est recouvert par une épaisse série sédimentaire mixte peu profonde. Ce système mixte perdure jusqu’au Bathonien inférieur puis il est progressivement remplacé par un système fluviatile silico-clastique. Les relations entre les mouvements diapiriques et la sédimentation peuvent être mises en évidence par une modification de la géométrie des dépôts, par des variations de faciès aux abords des diapirs, et/ou par des événements sédimentaires particuliers (surfaces d’érosion, brèches, niveau condensé). L’analyse de ces interactions en fonction des séquences de transgression-régression permet de définir une chronologie de l’activité diapirique. Elle est continue pendant le Jurassique inférieur et moyen mais connait une évolution polyphasée comprenant deux périodes d’activité majeure, du Toarcien à l’Aalénien terminal et du Bajocien supérieur jusqu’à ce que les diapirs soient scellés au Bathonien supérieur-Callovien inférieur. Ces deux périodes encadrent un épisode de plus faible intensité pendant la progradation et le développement de la rampe carbonatée bajocienne. Les interactions entre diapirisme et sédimentation sont synthétisées dans un modèle empirique à travers quatre types de prismes de dépôts, définis selon des critères géométriques et sédimentologiques, et qui rendent compte de la configuration du système sédimentaire, ainsi que de la position du diapir et de sa couverture au moment du dépôt : A plus grande échelle l’influence du développement des mini-bassins sur la sédimentation s’exprime par une distribution préférentielle des faciès sédimentaire dans les systèmes de dépôt carbonaté et mixte. Les faciès proximaux, et en particulier les faciès granulaires de haute énergie, se regroupent autour des rides diapiriques tandis que les faciès distaux de basse énergie se concentrent dans l’axe des mini-bassins. / The High-Atlas salt basin is formed by a set of ENE-WSW-trending and 15-to-80-kilometers-long narrow diapiric ridges (i.e. salt walls) bounding large mini-basins mildly deformed during Cenozoic shortening. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the relationships between sedimentation and diapiric growth during the Lower and Middle Jurassic in the Imilchil region (Central High-Atlas). In this area, the Lias and Dogger series form a large regressive trend composed by six third-order transgression-regression (T/R) sequences and characterized by the succession of three sedimentary systems. A carbonate system develop from Toarcian to Upper Bajocian, with a facies range from middle ramp to distal outer ramp. From Upper Bajocian, a terrigenous supply in the basin causes the end of the carbonate system and leads to the deposition of a thick shallow mixed unit. From Lower Bathonian, this mixed sedimentary system is gradually replaced by an alluvial silici-clastic system. Relationships between diapiric movements and sedimentation are interpreted from depositional geometries, facies variations in the vicinity of diapirs and/or particular sedimentary events (erosional surfaces, breccia, condensed levels). The analysis of these interactions, based on T/R sequences, enables to define a chronology of the diapiric activity in the Imilchil area. The activity is continuous during the Lower and Middle Jurassic but shows a non-linear development with two phases of high-intensity, one from Toarcian to Uppermost Aalenian, and one from Upper Bajocian. These two phases surround a period of low-intensity during the progradation and the development of the bajocian carbonate ramp system. Interactions between diapirism and sedimentation are summarized in an empirical model consisting of four types of depositional prisms defined by geometrical and sedimentological criteria. On a larger scale, the impact of the mini-basin on the sedimentation is characterized by a specific facies distribution in the carbonate and mixed depositional system. The high-energy granular facies are concentrated around the diapiric structures and the distal low-energy facies are deposited in the axis of the mini-basins.

Analogue and numerical modelling in geosciences is an excellent tool for studying complex spatio-temporal relationships in mass and energy transfer. Recent developments and advances in the plate tectonics and planetology require a combination of both approaches to simulate processes that cannot be studied directly in-situ. Advanced physical models are complemented by deformation analysis which is based on image velocimetry and photogrammetry, while numerical simulations utilize both modern and traditional methods to solve corresponding equations in complex domains. This work compiles several models that are focused on deformation analysis associated with material and heat transfer in large accretionary systems. The second subject of the thesis represent the investigation of the formation and propagation of large mudflows in martian atmospheric conditions. In the first part of the work we present a general overview of the problems of analogue and numerical modelling including scaling theory, governing equations, individual methods and history. In the second part of the thesis we deal with laboratory and numerical simulations of collision-indentation tectonics associated with the emergence of large accretionary systems on Earth. The last part of the thesis is devoted to experiments designed for the...

Analogue and numerical modelling in geosciences is an excellent tool for studying complex spatio-temporal relationships in mass and energy transfer. Recent developments and advances in the plate tectonics and planetology require a combination of both approaches to simulate processes that cannot be studied directly in-situ. Advanced physical models are complemented by deformation analysis which is based on image velocimetry and photogrammetry, while numerical simulations utilize both modern and traditional methods to solve corresponding equations in complex domains. This work compiles several models that are focused on deformation analysis associated with material and heat transfer in large accretionary systems. The second subject of the thesis represent the investigation of the formation and propagation of large mudflows in martian atmospheric conditions. In the first part of the work we present a general overview of the problems of analogue and numerical modelling including scaling theory, governing equations, individual methods and history. In the second part of the thesis we deal with laboratory and numerical simulations of collision-indentation tectonics associated with the emergence of large accretionary systems on Earth. The last part of the thesis is devoted to experiments designed for the...