Confocal microscopes utilize point illumination and pinhole detection to reject out-of-focus light. Because of the point illumination and detection pinhole, confocal microscopes typically utilize point scanning for imaging, which limits the overall acquisition speed. Due to the excellent optical sectioning capabilities of confocal microscopes, they are excellent tools for the study of three-dimensional objects at the microscopic scale. Fluorescence confocal microscopy is especially useful in biomedical imaging due to its high sensitivity and specificity. However, all designs for confocal microscopes must balance tradeoffs between the numerical aperture (NA), field of view (FOV), acquisition speed, and cost during the design process. In this dissertation, two different designs for an array confocal microscope are proposed to significantly increase the acquisition speed of confocal microscopes. An array confocal microscope scans an array of beams in the object plane to parallelize the confocal microscope to significantly reduce the acquisition time. If N beams are used in the array confocal microscope, the acquisition time is reduced by a factor of N. The first design scans an array of miniature objectives over the object plane to overcome the trade-off between FOV and NA. The array of objectives is laterally translated and each objective scans a small portion of the total FOV. Therefore, the number of objectives used in the array limits the FOV, and the FOV is increased without sacrificing NA. The second design utilizes a single objective with a high NA, large FOV, and large working distance designed specifically for whole brain imaging. This array confocal microscope is designed to speed up the acquisition time required for whole brain imaging. Utilizing an objective with a large FOV and scanning using multiple beams in the array significantly reduces the time required to image large three-dimensional volumes. Both array confocal microscope designs use beam-splitting gratings to efficiently split one laser beam into a number of equal energy outgoing beams, so this dissertation explores design methods and analyses of beam-splitting gratings to fabrication errors. In this dissertation, an optimization method to design single layer beam-splitting gratings with reduced sensitivity to fabrication errors is proposed. Beam-spitting gratings are typically only designed for a single wavelength, so achromatic beam-splitting grating doublets are also analyzed for possible use in array confocal microscopes with multiple excitation wavelengths. An analysis of the lateral shift between grating layers in the achromatic grating doublet proves grating profiles with constant first spatial derivatives are significantly less sensitive than continuous phase profiles. These achromatic grating doublets have designed performance at two wavelengths, but the diffraction angles at the two wavelengths differ. To overcome that limitation, scale-invariant achromatic gratings are designed, which not only provide designed performance at two wavelengths, but also equal diffraction angles at two wavelengths.

Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is a technique which uses images taken before and after deformation to determine displacement and strain data over the surface of the sample. In order to obtain this data for both in-plane as well as out-of-plane direction, multiple views of the sample are required. Typically, this is accomplished using multiple cameras, but it is possible to use diffraction gratings to bend the light coming from the specimen in order to allow a single camera to capture multiple views. This technique is referred to as Diffraction Assisted Image Correlation (DAIC) and has been previously demonstrated at room temperature. This work expands this method for use at high temperatures by incorporating the use of ultraviolet (UV) lights for illumination and filtering out the light in the visible spectrum. This increases the temperature at which useful images can be captured by reducing the glow that specimens produce at elevated temperatures. When not filtered out, this glow saturates the camera sensor making DIC impossible. This new technique is referred to as Ultraviolet Diffraction Assisted Image Correlation (UV-DAIC).

The primary objective of the presented research is to develop a class of integrated compact silicon diffractive sensors (CSDS) based on in-plane diffraction gratings. This class of sensors uses a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate to limit costs, exploit established fabrication processes, enable integration of supporting electronics, and use the well-understood telecommunications wavelength of 1.55µm. Sensing is achieved by combining constant-diffraction-efficiency and highly-angularly-selective in-plane resonance-domain diffraction gratings. Detection is based on the diffraction efficiency of the highly angularly selective grating. In this research, the design processes for the constant-diffraction-efficiency and the highly angularly selective gratings are detailed. Grating designs are optimized with rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA) and simulated with finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) analysis. Fabrication results are presented for the CSDS gratings. An inductively coupled plasma (ICP) Bosch etch process enables grating fabrication to within one percent of designed values with nearly vertical sidewalls. Experimental results are presented for individual CSDS gratings, the prototype sensor, and a prototype linear sensor array. The results agree well with simulation. The linear sensor array prototype demonstrates the intrinsic splitting mechanism and forms the basis of a 2-D sensor array. Finally, a toluene sensor was functionally demonstrated. The proof-of-concept device includes a polymer immobilization layer and microfluidic delivery of toluene. Toluene concentrations as low as 100ppm are measured, corresponding to a refractive index change of 3x10⁻⁴ RIU.

Cette thèse présente l’écriture de motifs périodiques 1D ou 2D, sur des films sol-gel réalisés par lithographie interférométrique dynamique. Elle a pour objectif la fabrication d’éléments optiques diffractifs dont les propriétés sont utilisées dans le traitement de la lumière visible et du proche infrarouge. Les outils technologiques compatibles nécessaires à l’obtention de ces éléments optiques ont été développés durant la thèse en combinant des matériaux fonctionnels, comme le TiO2, apportés par la voie sol-gel à une technique de lithographie permettant une microstructuration directe sur de grande surface. Ces deux technologies ont été transférées du laboratoire à un équipement semi-industriel avec succès. Cette étude a été guidée par une application des réseaux de diffraction aux modules solaires photovoltaïques. Un démonstrateur de module à déflecteurs diffractant, permettant d’augmenter le rendement global du module, a été produit et testé durant la thèse : les résultats ont été comparés aux simulations effectuées en amont / This PhD thesis deals with the writing of 1D or 2D periodic patterns on sol-gel based substrates by dynamic interferometric lithography. The aim is the manufacturing of diffractive optical elements whose properties are used in the treatment of the visible light and near infrared wavelengths. Compatible technological tools for obtaining the optical elements have been developed during the thesis by combining functional materials, such as TiO2, made by the sol-gel method and a lithography technique for direct microstructuring on large area. Both technologies have been successfully transferred from the laboratory scale to a semi-industrial equipment. This study was guided by the application of diffraction gratings for photovoltaic solar modules. A demonstrator module using diffracting deflectors, in order to increase the global PV module yield, was produced and tested in the thesis and compared to simulations

Ce travail de thèse est consacré au piégeage de la lumière par des cristaux photoniques(CP) et des réseaux de diffraction. L’objectif consiste à intégrer de telles structures dans des cellules solaires à couches ultra-minces de silicium, afin d’augmenter leur rendement de conversion. Nous avons conçu et optimisé des cellules solaires en silicium cristallin (c-Si) assistées par les CP, grâce à la méthode FDTD (Finite Difference Time Domain). En gravant un CP 2Ddans la couche active de silicium, l’absorption intégrée sur l’ensemble du spectre est augmentée de 50%. Cette amélioration est atteinte en combinant des modes de Bloch lent et des résonances Fabry-Perot. Afin de réaliser de telles cellules solaires, nous avons développé une filière technologique combinant insolation holographique, gravure ionique réactive et gravure ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma). Nous avons étudié l’influence des paramètres de ces procédés sur la structuration réalisée. Enfin, les caractéristiques optiques et électriques de ces objets ont été mesurées par nos collaborateurs de l’IMEC, en Belgique. Les mesures d’absorption sont en bon accord avec les prédictions théoriques. De plus, l’absorption intégrée est peu sensible à l’angle d’incidence de la lumière solaire. La cellule solaire structurée comme un CP 2D présente finalement un courant de court-circuit d’environ 15mA/cm², soit20% plus élevé que dans le cas de la cellule de référence. Par ailleurs, nous avons conçu une cellule solaire en c-Si plus complexe, intégrant des réseaux de diffraction avant et arrière. L’absorption aux grandes longueurs d’onde est augmentée du fait de la période élevée (750 nm) du réseau arrière, tandis que la réflexion en face avant est diminuée du fait de la faible période (250 nm) du réseau avant. Nous avons prédit une augmentation du courant de court-circuit jusqu’à 30m A/cm² pour ce dispositif, en comparaison avec la valeur de 18 mA/cm² correspondant à la cellule de référence non structurée. Ces résultats sont première étape vers le développement de futures générations de cellules solaires assistées par des cristaux photoniques et des réseaux de diffraction. / Gratings are considered. The goal is to integrate such structures into ultra-thin film silicon photovoltaic solar cells, with a view to improve their conversion efficiency. First, a PCs assisted ultra-thin film crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cell is designed optimized by using the Finite Different Time Domain (FDTD) approach. An increase over50% is achieved for the absorption, as integrated over the whole spectral range, by patterning a 2D PCs in the active Si layer. This enhancement is achieved by combining Slow Bloch modes and Fabry-Perot modes. In order to fabricate such solar cells, we developed a process based on Laser Holographic Lithography, Reactive Ion Etching and Inductivity Coupled Plasma etching. We have investigated the influence of the parameters taking part in these processes on the obtained patterns. Finally the optical and electrical properties of the devices have been characterized by our co-workers at IMEC, Belgium. Absorption measurements are in good agreement with the theoretical simulations. Moreover, the integrated absorption is tolerant with regard to the sunlight angle of incidence. The final fabricated 2D PCs patterned solar cell exhibits a 20% higher short circuit current (Jsc = 15mA/cm2) than the reference. Additionally, a more complex thin film c-Si solar cells integrating front and back diffraction gratings has been designed. Long wavelength absorption is increased thanks to the long period (750 nm) back grating, while the incident light reflection is reduced by using a short period (250 nm) front grating. A short-circuit current increase up to 30 mA/cm² is predicted for this device, far above the 18 mA/cm² value for the unpatterned reference These are first steps towards the development of a future generation of PC and diffraction grating assisted solar cells.

To mitigate climate change a proposed space-based geoengineering solutionis to screen off solar irradiance by placing a membrane in between the Earthand the Sun. The feasibility of such a project largely depends on minimizingthe mass of the shading screen and as an extension to the Sunshade projectthis thesis investigated how such a low-mass membrane could be designed.Because of the acting forces at location in space, minimizing the mass impliesthat the material ought to have a low reflection coefficient and surface densityand therefore the highly transparent material of artificial spider silk was chosenas the proposed material. The only possibility to block light is then byrefraction or diffraction and, since the presence of apertures might lower thesurface density, the structure of the suggested membrane is a grid patternof wires. Such a diffraction grating was investigated while applying twomethods. Method 1 optimized the dimensions of the structure to lower thetotal transmission on Earth when placed on the direct transmission axis ofthe membrane and method 2 tilted the membrane in order to place Earth ata diffraction minimum. This resulted in three suggested designs A, B, andC with surface densities varying from that of 0.00867 to 0.228 gm−2. Theresults were compared with two previous design proposals where the lowestareal density was 0.34g/m2, which is 3/2 to 40 times larger than the densitiesproposed in this paper. The reflectivities for A and B were 12.5 and 3.75 timeslarger than that of the smallest previously achieved reflectivity. The reflectivityof C could not be determined exactly but ought to have a reflectivity at leastas low as B at 3%, making it the most promising candidate for a membranedesign of the three.

Ces travaux de thèse ont pour but d’analyser les outils de photolithographies permettant d’inscrire des réseaux des diffractions et d’identifier ceux qui sont suffisamment flexibles pour être adapté à des substrats non conventionnels tel que des cylindres ou des tubes. Les outils de photolithographies développés ont aussi été ajustés afin d’inscrire directement un réseau de diffraction dans une couche fonctionnelle de TiO2, apporté par la voie sol-gel. Cette thèse est une étude prospective car la périodicité ou le motif des structures diffractantes inscrites n’ont pas été définis pour une application spécifique. Deux outils de photolithographies ont été adaptés avec succès aux substrats cylindriques. Ils seront présentés ici et s’accompagneront d’une perspective en vue d’une application particulière. Enfin, le dernier chapitre se distincte des précédents car il ne porte pas sur le développement d’un outil de photolithographie mais sur la transformation chimique du TiO2 (diélectrique) en TiN (métal), il reste néanmoins dans la continuité de ses travaux de thèse car cette transformation est adaptée à tous types de substrats / The aim of this thesis is to analyze the photolithography tools used to print diffraction gratings and to identify those that are sufficiently flexible to be adapted to unconventional substrates such as cylinders or tubes. The photolithography tools developed have also been adjusted in order to write directly a diffraction grating in a functional layer of TiO2, supplied by the sol-gel pathway. This thesis is a prospective study because the periodicity or the pattern of the registered diffracting structures has not been defined for a specific application. Two photolithography tools have been successfully adapted to cylindrical substrates. They will be presented here and will be accompanied with a perspective for a specific application. Finally, the last chapter is distinct from the previous ones because it does not concern the development of a photolithography tool but on the chemical transformation of TiO2 (dielectric) into TiN (metal), it nevertheless remains in the continuity of its thesis because this transformation is adapted to all types of substrates

Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας μελετήθηκε, σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε ένα σύστημα ελέγχου ενός φασματοσκοπίου εκπομπής υψηλής φασματικής ανάλυσης. Η συσκευή αυτή, γνωστή και ως μονοχρωμάτορας, χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την καταγραφή φασμάτων εκπομπής από μία εκκένωση αίγλης σε διάκενο ακίδα-πλάκα σε συνθήκες χαμηλής πίεσης και θερμοκρασίας. Ο μονοχρωμάτορας χρησιμοποιεί ένα διάφραγμα περίθλασης που αναλύει μια πολυχρωματική δέσμη που προσπίπτει σε αυτό, στα επιμέρους μήκη κύματος Ο έλεγχος του συνόλου των λειτουργιών του συστήματος καθώς και η καταγραφή των φασμάτων πραγματοποιείται με τη χρήση λογισμικού που αναπτύχθηκε υπό την πλατφόρμα Labview. Στα πλαίσια αυτής της εργασίας υλοποιήθηκε: Η σύνδεση της συσκευής οδήγησης του βηματικού κινητήρα που περιστρέφει το διάφραγμα με κατάλληλο τροφοδοτικό. Η ενίσχυση των σημάτων ελέγχου της συσκευής οδήγησης. Η ενίσχυση και καταγραφή του ρεύματος του φωτοπολλαπλασιαστή που καταγράφει τη φωτεινή δραστηριότητα. Η βαθμονόμηση του μονοχρωμάτορα. Η ανάπτυξη λογισμικού, φιλικού προς τον χρήστη, με το οποίο ελέγχεται ο μονοχρωμάτορας, καταγράφεται το φάσμα και αποθηκεύεται σε αρχείο για περαιτέρω επεξεργασία. Η συγκέντρωση του φωτός που εκπέμπεται από την εκκένωση και η οδήγησή του στην είσοδο του μονοχρωμάτορα με τη χρήση κατάλληλης οπτικής διάταξης. Η καταγραφή φασμάτων του παραγόμενου πλάσματος της εκκένωσης κατά μήκος του διακένου. Η μελέτη και ανάλυση των καταγεγραμμένων φασμάτων. / The main purpose of this thesis was to construct a control system for a high precision spectrometer. Using this spectrometer, also known as monochromator, spectra was recorded from a low temperature – low pressure, pin to plate, glow discharge. The monochromator uses a diffraction grating to separate spatially a polychromatic beam of light available at its input. The stepper motor control, along with the recording of spectra, is being conducted by suitable software developed under the Labview platform. Among the challenges of the thesis was to: Αssemble a stepper motor controller which rotates the diffraction grating with a suitable power supply. Αmplify the control signals of the controller. Αmplify the photomultiplier signals which records the luminous intensity. Calibrate the monochromator. Develop a user-friendly software which can control the monochromator, record spectra and export a file with the recorded spectra for further use. Concentrate the emitted light of the discharge and guide it to the monochromator's input slit, using a UV lens and an optical fiber. Capture emitted spectra of the produced plasma, at different positions along the pin to plate gap. Analyze the recorded spectra.

No description available.

Gallium nitride (GaN) light emitting diodes (LED) embody a large field of research that aims to replace inefficient, conventional light sources with LEDs that have lower power, higher luminosity, and longer lifetime. This thesis presents an international collaboration effort between the State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics in Peking University (PKU) of Beijing, China and the Electrical Engineering Department of California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. Over the course of 2 years, Cal Poly’s side has simulated GaN LEDs within the pure blue wavelength spectrum (460nm), focusing specifically on the effects of reflection gratings, transmission gratings, top and bottom gratings, error gratings, 3-fold symmetric photonic crystal, and 2-fold symmetric nano-imprinted gratings. PKU used our simulation results to fabricate GaN high brightness LEDs from the results of our simulation models. We employed the use of the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method, a computational electromagnetic solution to Maxwell’s equations, to measure light extraction efficiency improvements of the various grating structures. Since the FDTD method was based on the differential form of Maxwell’s equations, it arbitrarily simulated complex grating structures of varying shapes and sizes, as well as the reflection, diffraction, and dispersion of propagating light throughout the device. We presented the optimized case, as well as the optimization trend for each of the single grating structures within a range of simulation parameters on the micron scale and find that single grating structures, on average, doubled the light extraction efficiency of GaN LEDs. Photonic crystal grating research in the micron scale suggested that transmission gratings benefit most when grating cells tightly pack together, while reflection gratings benefit when grating cells space further apart. The total number of grating cells fabricated on a reflection grating layer still affects light extraction efficiency. For the top and bottom grating structures, we performed a partial optimization of the grating sets formed from the optimized single grating cases and found that the direct pairing of optimized single grating structures decreases overall light extraction efficiency. However, through a partial optimization procedure, top and bottom grating designs could improve light extraction efficiency by 118% for that particular case, outperforming either of the single top or bottom grating cases alone. Our research then explored the effects of periodic, positional perturbation in grating designs and found that at a 10-15% randomization factor, light extraction efficiency could improve up to 230% from the original top and bottom grating case. Next, in an experiment with PKU, we mounted a 2-fold symmetric photonic crystal onto a PDMS hemi-cylinder by nano-imprinting to measure the transmission of light at angles from near tangential to normal. Overall transmission of light compared with the non-grating design increases overall light extraction efficiency when integrated over the range of angles. Finally, our research focused on the 3-fold symmetric photonic crystal grating structure and employed the use of 3-D FDTD methods and incoherent light sources to better study the effects of higher-ordered symmetry in grating design. Grating cells were discovered as the source of escaping light from the GaN LED model. The model revealed that light extraction efficiency and the far-field diffraction pattern could be estimated by the position of grating cells in the grating design.