The thesis concerns maritime labour and its recent challenges from an international law perspective. The purpose of the work is twofold. First, it analyses how maritime labour has changed in most recent years. In particular, the work discusses the impact on maritime labour of two recent phenomena, namely globalisation and digitalisation. As far as the former is concerned, the thesis outlines that globalisation has given rise to flags of convenience and open registries, which have led to a marked deterioration in living conditions on board. As far as the latter is concerned, it is shown that digitalisation has made crews less and less numerous, although at the same time increasingly qualified and competent. Second, the study investigates whether the current international legal framework is adequate to cope with the changes described above, or whether it should be modified – and, if so, in which sense. Specifically, the research examines the main Conventions, bilateral agreements as well as voluntary or self-regulatory instruments. In addition, the study takes into account international collective bargaining, which is relevant because the maritime sector is highly unionised, and the International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF) has made a great effort over the years to get global shipowners to guarantee minimum conditions for seafarers. This research has an innovative and original approach. Maritime labour law is a rather neglected branch of legal studies. Only few researchers have investigated this subject. In particular, an organic study on this topic still represents a desideratum in Italy. This work intends to fill this gap, providing an Italian point of view on maritime labour law. In fact, even though the issue transcends national borders by its very nature, the transposition of international legal instruments at domestic level can vary greatly from state to state. In addition, the maritime sector is usually studied from an economic perspective, rather than from a labour law perspective. For example, most publications about flags of convenience focus on the distortion of competition. This research shifts the approach and looks at the phenomenon from the workers’ point of view. Such an approach is relevant for seafarers and for the entire sector, since taking the human factor into account is crucial for the sustainable development of the field.

Labor standards have been introduced in both developed and developing countries with the presumption that there is synergy at work in the relationship of labor standards and workers’ rights. Standards translate into workers’ rights, and enhance workers’ economic security. The question I address in this dissertation is whether the inherent link in the nexus makes the transformation towards workers’ economic security possible, and what factors do shape standards to transform into rights, and in turn, influence economic security. Focusing on the forms of labor standards, I argue that the choice of instruments and the transformation process determine whether the link automatically creates synergy, or produces tensions /conflicts. The dissertation shows that synergistic or conflicting relationship depends upon the internal dynamics of the institutional mechanisms, and myriad of interest groups through which workers’ interests are (mis)represented. Taking labor standards installation in Bangladesh and the concomitant transformation mechanisms for the increasingly globalized garment sector workers as a case in point, I claim that the issue of workers’ economic security has been lost in the whirlpool of standards, rights, and representation. This study shows that labor standards in Bangladesh installed through three routes— rights legislation, rights conditionality, and corporate codes—have hardly translated into workers’ rights, and these provisions largely have failed to promote the workers’ economic security. The failure to transform labor standards into workers’ rights and workers’ economic security is best explained by the lack of adequate and effective representation of the working poor by the various interest groups. I argue that the inability of the institutional mechanisms to address the needs of the working poor is due to acts of omission and/or commission by both the state and non-state actors. The ‘standards-rights-economic security’ nexus can only work for an equitable outcome for workers if there are adequate and effective forms of workers’ representation in the institutional mechanisms. The politics of representation drives the outcome of the nexus.

This research aims to explore the most relevant legal tools developed to support the access of people, already active in the labour market, to vocational training measures; focusing on the protective role they may play both in the individual employment relationship and in the labour market. Regarding the first thematic core, the research will point out that current flexible productive structures require continuous realignment process of workers’ professional capital vis-a-vis the organizational needs. As far as the labour market dimension is concerned, according to the most recent theoretical perspectives, it is highlighted how training tools can assume an essential function in the dimension of professional security when projected towards the preventive protection of employment transitions. Starting from these premises, this research investigates possible regulatory answers to empower employers in order to maintain their workers professionalism, as well as to guarantee the employment security dimension. 2 In order to identify the most pertinent regulatory solutions, different approaches and instruments are analysed. In particular, the French and Italian legal systems are compared. These systems have adopted extremely different approaches to vocational training: in France the development of a complete and organic continuing training framework has been one of the absolute priorities in the field of social legislation, while in Italy, at the moment, there is no structured and unitary discipline on the matter. In particular, the comparative analysis reveals that in the French legal system, both the needs of adapting professional skills to organizational changes, and the "preventive" protection of employment transitions have found suitable regulatory responses. They have been provided through the provision of a complex system of employers’ duties, as well as by forecasting specific tools allowing direct and individual access to training measures. To the contrary, the Italian legal framework lacks clear requirements designed to empower companies with regard to the adaptation or development of the human capital of their workforce Furthermore, the Italian legal system does not provide for an individual right to training, which would allow workers to independently access training, on the basis of a personal and conscious prospect of professional development.

La presente ricerca intende affrontare due questioni tra loro interconnesse. La prima potrebbe definirsi, ormai, un esercizio ineludibile per tutti coloro che intendono confrontarsi con le categorie fondamentali del diritto del lavoro: alludiamo, quindi, alla nota questione della collocazione sistematica e, prima ancora, del modo d’essere delle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente. Si tratta, infatti, di un tema che ha visto cimentarsi l’intera “accademia” del diritto del lavoro e, tuttavia, sembra adesso possibile svolgere una sintesi ragionata sulle opinioni presentate dalla dottrina, grazie alla visuale privilegiata di chi si approccia a tale esercizio “a valle” dell’intervento di interpretazione “autentica” dell’art. 15 del d.lgs. 81 del 2017 nonché dei primi pronunciamenti giurisprudenziali. Il secondo quesito che si intende affrontare è ben espresso dall’ultimo spunto ricostruttivo offerto in merito alla vicenda delle collaborazioni etero organizzate, e cioè se la nuova disciplina offra «maggiore tutele alle nuove fattispecie di lavoro che, a seguito della evoluzione e della relativa introduzione sempre più accelerata delle recenti tecnologie, si stanno sviluppando». L’art. 2 del d.lgs. 81/2015, disponendo che “si applica” la disciplina del rapporto di lavoro subordinato “anche” ai rapporti di collaborazione che si concretano in prestazioni di lavoro esclusivamente personali e continuative, a condizione che le modalità di esecuzione siano organizzate dal committente anche in relazione ai tempi ed al luogo di lavoro, è destinato ad operare nell’area assai controversa del lavoro personale continuativo prestato nell’altrui interesse. E ciò, allo scopo di mettere ordine al noto problema delle prestazioni di lavoro sulla frontiera tra subordinazione e autonomia, al quale il lavoro a progetto non aveva saputo dare una risposta adeguata. Nel presente elaborato, si procederà, anzitutto, alla ricostruzione dello summa divisio che caratterizza la nostra materia e con la quale devono, sempre, confrontarsi tutte le “nozioni” che intercettano e descrivono un modo d’essere di una prestazione di lavoro. 4 In secondo luogo, ripercorreremo, sinteticamente, le vicende del lavoro coordinato che hanno preceduto l’introduzione della figura delle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente e ciò, per un duplice ordine di considerazioni: da un lato, è la formulazione della norma dell’art. 2 del d.lgs. 81 del 2015 a richiamare elementi di fattispecie delle collaborazioni “autonome” ex art. 409 c.p.c., per cui è ineludibile riferirsi al modello genetico per chiarire il significato e le divergenze della nuova disciplina; dall’altro, da un punto di vista certamente “cronologico” e, come si vedrà, anche “logico”, la disciplina delle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente eredita l’ingrata funzione anti elusiva del lavoro a progetto. Allo scopo di comprendere il terreno elettivo delle collaborazioni etero organizzate, e quindi la “zona grigia”, sarà opportuno spiegare, brevemente, i mutamenti avvenuti nei paradigmi economico – produttivi che hanno contribuito allo scollamento del modo di prestare lavoro rispetto al binomio oppositivo accolto nel nostro codice civile. Allo stesso tempo, si dovrà dare conto delle diverse “stagioni della giurisprudenza” nazionale sulla subordinazione perché, in un sistema a «categorie mutualmente esclusive e complessivamente esaustive», le flessioni di un polo comportano ripercussioni complementari all’altro capo. A questo punto, si affronterà in dettaglio la prima questione del presente elaborato. Si tenterà di delineare i tratti fisionomici delle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente e, conseguentemente, si analizzeranno partitamente i requisiti costitutivi della fattispecie fotografata dal primo comma dell’art. 2 del d.lgs. 81 del 2015: esclusiva personalità della prestazione; continuità ed etero-organizzazione “anche” dei tempi e del luogo della prestazione. Dopo aver qualificato il modo d’essere collaboratori etero organizzati, si potrà affrontare con maggiore consapevolezza la questione dell’inquadramento teorico, non prima però di aver svolto qualche considerazione sulla tecnica legislativa impiegata dal Legislatore. La questione dell’inquadramento teorico delle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente è stata ed è tuttora al centro del dibattito segnalato in apertura, anche a seguito della prima applicazione giurisprudenziale della disposizione. 5 Conseguentemente, non si potrà fare a meno di fornire e incasellare le principali letture proposte dagli operatori del diritto, osservando come le stesse si risolvono, in ultima analisi, nella riconduzione delle collaborazioni ex art. 2 del d.lgs. 81 del 2015 ora all’area del lavoro subordinato ora a quella del lavoro autonomo. A prima vista, siffatta diatriba potrebbe sembrare prima di risvolti pratici posto che, a prescindere da qualsivoglia ricostruzione dogmatica si scelga, alle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente si applicherà, comunque, la disciplina del rapporto di lavoro subordinato come stabilito espressamente dall’art. 2, d.lgs. 81/2015. E, tuttavia, è bene sin d’ora ricordare che secondo alcuni orientamenti, di cui si darà conto, la scelta esegetica inciderebbe in ordine alla selezione delle norme dello statuto del lavoro subordinato concretamente estendibili alle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente. Una volta fornita l’interpretazione “autentica” delle collaborazioni etero organizzate e chiarito il quantum di disciplina della subordinazione che si applica a mente dell’art. 2, si potrà procedere all’indagine sulla seconda questione oggetto del presente elaborato: si metterà l’interpretazione raggiunta alla prova del mondo del lavoro digitale. Specificatamente, si analizzerà il modello operativo ed organizzativo del lavoro prestato nelle piattaforme digitali, identificandone elementi comuni e tratti differenziali sia rispetto al tradizionale lavoro “sconnesso” e sia tra le differenti ed eterogenee realtà che lo “rappresentano”. Si procederà, quindi, a verificare se le tradizionali categorie dell’autonomia e della subordinazione siano in grado di “intercettare” tale fenomeno lavorativo e di produrre un sistema di tutela soddisfacente, sperimentando altresì la nuova disposizione delle collaborazioni organizzate dal committente. Da ultimo, anticipando gli esiti deludenti della verifica sopra tratteggiata, si prenderà posizione sulle tecniche di regolazione del lavoro digitale e sulle modalità di imputazione delle tutele al prestatore di lavoro nella piattaforma. / This thesis aims to address two interrelated research questions. The first one has now become an inescapable intellectual exercise for anybody dealing with the fundamental categories of labor law. Specifically, we allude to the well-known topic of the systematic effects and, before that, of the way of being of the collaborations hetero-organized by the client introduced by art. 2, Legislative Decree n. 81/2015. Indeed, the entire "academy of labor law” has been offering multiple interpretations since the introduction of this legal category without coming to an agreed solution. However, it is now possible to carry out a final synthesis of the doctrine thanks to the privileged view of whom investigates this research question after the "authentic" interpretation provided by art. 15 of Legislative Decree 81 of 2017 and the first rulings. The second research question that we will address concerns the analysis of the provisions governing the hetero-organized work and, specifically, if this new category offers a better (or, at least, sufficient) protection on the new digital work scenarios in comparison with the traditional rights of subordinate work. Article. 2 of Legislative Decree 81/2015, by establishing that "subordinate work protective statute" also "applies" to collaborative work performed continuously and exclusively by an individual worker, providing that the methods of execution are hetero-organized by the client “also in relation to time and place of work”, will intercept the activities falling in the very controversial area of continuous personal work in the interest of a second party. By doing this, this new legal category should address the “ancestral” question of the qualification of the workers performing on the frontier between subordination and autonomy, to which the so called “project work” category had proven not to be able to give an adequate solution. Consequently, we will proceed first to a brief historical analysis of the traditional labor law categories of subordinate work and autonomy against which any new legal category has to be compared. Secondly, we will review the main stages and regulations of the work carried out under a coordinate way with the client that precede the legal category of the collaborations hetero-organized by the client for the following purposes: on the one hand, the legal words used by the art. 2 of Legislative Decree 81 of 2015 inevitably recall requirements of the “old” category of the autonomous collaborations pursuant to art. 409 c.p.c. Therefore, it is mandatory to investigate the “genetic model” to clarify the meaning of the new discipline. On the other hand, both from a "chronological" and "logical" point of view, the provisions for the collaborations hetero-organized by the client “inherit” the anti-elusive spirit and goal of the “project work”. In order to understand the targeted work performances of the hetero-organized collaborations, it will be useful to explain the changes that have taken place in the economic-productive paradigms that have contributed to the detachment of the way of working with respect to the binary system model between subordinate work and autonomy accepted in our civil code. At the same time, we will analyze and categorize the main historical stages of the Italian Jurisprudence on qualification of works since in a system of "mutually exclusive and overall exhaustive categories", the decline of a legal category generates a complementary effect on the other. At this point, the first research question will be discussed in details. We will attempt to outline the key “features” of the collaborations hetero-organized by the client and, consequently, we will analyze the requirements of the work scenario “portrayed” by the first paragraph of art. 2 of Legislative Decree 81 of 2015: an exclusively personal work; continuity and hetero-organization "also" of the time and place of the collaboration. Once identified the key features of the new category, it will be possible to challenge the research question concerning the theoretical framework where the collaborations hetero-organized by the client should fall. To address this question, we will first provide the principal interpretations proposed by the legal practitioners which, eventually, link the new category of the collaborations pursuant to art. 2 of Legislative Decree 81 of 2015 to one of the traditional binary categories of subordinate work or self-employment. At first glance, such radical opposition does not seem to yield any practical implications given that, the collaborations hetero-organized by the client will be ruled according to the provisions set for subordinate work as established expressly by the art. 2, Legislative Decree 81/2015. Nevertheless, it has to be acknowledged that according to some doctrines the theoretical framework choice affects the provisions that can be concretely extended to the collaborations hetero-organized by the client. Once provided the "authentic" interpretation of the new legal category and clarified the “quantum” of discipline of the subordination work that applies to hetero-organized works as per art. 2, it will be possible to proceed with the second research question: we will test the new category against the digital work scenario. Specifically, we will analyze the operational and organizational model of the work performed within a “digital work platform”, identifying common elements and differential traits with respect to both traditional "offline-work” and all the multiple forms in which the digital works take place. We will therefore proceed to verify if the traditional binary categories of autonomy and subordination are able to "intercept" and “qualify” this recent work phenomenon and contribute to a fair protection of digital workers. Finally, anticipating the disappointing outcomes of the above mentioned investigation, we will take a position on digital job regulation techniques thus suggesting a possible way to protect the employee in the working platforms.

L’opera analizza l’evoluzione dei metodi di gestione del dissenso collettivo e, in particolare, si propone di offrire una ricostruzione sistematica delle basi normative e degli effetti applicativi, attuali e potenziali, del principio di maggioranza nell’ambito delle relazioni sindacali. Ciò soprattutto alla luce del fatto che, nei casi di periodica interruzione dell’unità di azione dei maggiori sindacati confederali, la «rivoluzione maggioritaria», già sperimentata nel pubblico impiego, è spesso indicata, e non a caso accolta dai recenti accordi interconfederali, come la fondamentale soluzione alle conflittualità di sistema. Ma in che rapporto sono democrazia sindacale e regola maggioritaria? Nei quattro capitoli, con approccio storico-ricostruttivo, la risposta viene fornita attraverso lo studio del fondamento e dei limiti del principio di maggioranza sia in ambito associativo sia nell’evoluzione delle relazioni sindacali, con il traguardo di giungere all’analisi delle previsioni del Testo Unico del 10 gennaio 2014 e dell’art. 8 del d.l. 138/2011 (conv. in l. n. 148/2011). Nel capitolo conclusivo, infine, vengono discussi le sfide ed i problemi concreti che la possibile adozione legislativa della regola di maggioranza potrebbe comportare. / The work analyzes the evolution of the management of the trade union’s dissent and, in particular, it aims to offer a systematic reconstruction of the normative and an analysis of the majority principle in the context of labor relations, considering their current and potential effects. This especially because, in cases of periodic interruption of the action of the major trade union federations, the “major revolution” - already been adopted in the public sector – is often referred as the fundamental solution to conflicts; that’s why it is accepted by the recent inter-confederation agreements. But what is the relation between the union democracy and the majority rule? The answer is provided in the four chapters of the work, with the historical and reconstructive approach, through the study of the grounds and the limits of the majority principle both in its associated field and in the evolution of labor relations, with the goal of reaching the analysis of “Testo Unico del 10 gennaio 2014” and art. 8, d.l. 138/2011 (l. n. 148/2011)”. Finally, in the last chapter, we are going to discuss, in case of a trade union law, the challenges and the concrete problems that the possible adoption of the majority rule could provide.

La ricerca è tesa a verificare se e in quale misura le sanzioni amministrative attualmente vigenti risultino strumenti idonei ad assicurare il rispetto delle norme in materia di lavoro. A tale scopo, esaminate, al capitolo primo, le principali teorie elaborate in materia di effettività (principio idoneo a disvelare i rapporti tra fatto e diritto), la ricerca analizza le cause della depenalizzazione degli illeciti in materia di lavoro ed i principi generali in materia di illecito amministrativo dettati dalla legge numero 689/81 (capitolo II). Al terzo capitolo è una sintetica ricognizione dei principali illeciti amministrativi in materia di lavoro; particolare attenzione è riservata agli illeciti in materia di orario di lavoro e di lavoro sommerso, attesa la centralità dei beni giuridici che vengono in considerazione e dei molteplici, recenti, interventi legislativi succedutisi in materia. Il quarto capitolo è, infine, dedicato all’esame della disciplina (primaria e secondaria) in materia di vigilanza del lavoro atteso il rilievo che la vigilanza (momento che precede, cronologicamente e logicamente, l’applicazione della sanzione) assume nella prospettiva dell’effettività della norma. / The present study is directed to verify if administrative sanctions in force are fit instruments to ensure that labour rules are observed. After examining, in chapter I, the main theories about effectiveness (principle revealing relationships between facts and law), the study analyses the cause of decriminalization of labour crimes and the general principles of administrative crimes as regulated by legge n. 689/81. In chapter III is a short pass of the main administrative labour crimes. Particular attention is given to administrative time work and undeclared work crimes because of the importance of values concerned and the numerous laws recently occurred. In chapter IV labour vigilance is examined considering the importance that controls have to ensure laws’ respect.

La tesi analizza il tema del danno alla salute psichica e in particolar modo il mobbing. Il filo conduttore della tesi è dato dall’art. 2087 c.c. norma non solo di riferimento, ma anche punto di partenza della ricerca. Da questa infatti si diramano tanto la teoria della responsabilità contrattuale quanto i vari orientamenti offerti delle scienze non giuridiche. Si affronta il tema della salute non intesa solo nella sua dimensione fisica, ma anche psichica. Alcuni capitoli sono dedicati al fenomeno del mobbing ed ai rapporti con altri istituti codificati, di legislazione speciale e con la contrattazione collettiva del settore cooperativo. Infine, un capitolo è dedicato ai danni, alle conseguenze derivanti dalla violazione del bene salute e alle tipologie di risarcimento possibili nell’ambito della bipartizione danno patrimoniale e danno non patrimoniale: per infine ricondurre il fenomeno del mobbing in particolare e del danno alla salute psicofisica in generale nell’ambito del danno non patrimoniale. / The thesis analyzes to the topic of the damage to the psychical health and in particolar way the mobbing. The thread conductor of the thesis is given from art. the 2087 c.c norm not only of reference, but also point of departure of the search. From this in fact the guidelines are circulated as well as the theory of the contractual responsibility how much several offers of not legal sciences. The topic of the single health is faced not understanding in its physical dimension, but also psychical. Some understood them are dedicate you to the phenomenon of the mobbing and to the relationships with other institutes it codifies to you, of special legislation and with the counterfeit of the cooperative field. At last, understanding it is dedicated it to the damages, to the consequences deriving from the violation of the good health and to the possible tipologie of compensation in the within of the bipartition it gives patrimonial and it gives not patrimonial: in order at last to lead back the phenomenon of the mobbing in particular and the damage to the psicofisica health in general terms in the within of the not patrimonial damage.

Obbligo di fedeltà del prestatore di lavoro - Il patto di non concorrenza - Modelli organizzativi - Sviluppo del capitale umano e politiche di fidelizzazione del personale / Duty of loyalty - Covenant not to compete - Post termination of employment - Employment retention schemes

L'intento del presente studio è stato quello di individuare il soggetto (o i soggetti) cui imputare i rapporti di lavoro nell'ambito delle imprese c.d. complesse. A tal uopo, in primo luogo, si è tentato di capire il significato di “impresa complessa”; in secondo luogo, si è indagato in ordine alla nozione di “datore di lavoro” accolta nel nostro ordinamento. Affrontate le questioni preliminari, l'analisi si è concentrata sulla risoluzione del quesito posto alla base della ricerca: chi è il datore di lavoro nell'impresa complessa? Una particolare considerazione è stata dedicata alle posizioni della dottrina e della giurisprudenza sulla teoria della codatorialità, la quale è stata esaminata anche in chiave comparata, al fine di trarre possibili spunti per un'eventuale trasposizione, nel sistema giuridico italiano, di soluzioni adottate da parte di altri ordinamenti. Una lettura in chiave evolutiva della subordinazione e, conseguentemente, della figura datoriale ha consentito di sposare la teoria della codatorialità, anche in ragione della sua adattabilità agli avveniristici modelli imprenditoriali dell'epoca delle piattaforme digitali che stiamo attraversando. / Main purpose of the research is to identify the subject (or the subjects) to which working relationships in complex companies must be allocated. In order to do so, firstly, meaning of "complex companies" has been analyzed. Then, notion of "employer"- as accepted in our legal system - has been explored. Once preliminary issues have been covered, the analysis focused on the main issue underlying the research/project: who is the employer in complex companies? Both doctrine and case law have been taken into consideration in analysing the “co-employer” theory. Said theory has also been studied under a comparative perspective in order to identify potential solutions for the transposition into the Italian legal system of ideas already adopted in other countries. At the end of the project/research, theory of "co-employer" has been accepted through an evolutionary analysis of the "subordination" concept as well as of the employer's role. Such a conclusion has been identified also in the light of its full adaptability to the new digital platforms' business models.

Historically, International Labour Law was developed to mitigate the negative social externalities of the Industrial Revolution and protect international trade from unfair competition. With a similar objective, the international community failed to establish the International Trade Organisation provided for in the 1948 Havana Charter. In its place, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was adopted. However, the Havana Charter remains the first universal trade treaty to include a social clause. During the Cold War, Western countries failed to introduce a social clause in the GATT. The most resounding failure was in the 1990s when the World Trade Organisation (WTO) was created. This failure drove Western countries to introduce social clauses in bilateral and non-universal multilateral trade agreements. Since the 2000s there has been a ‘boom’ of new social clauses. These clauses have developed into two main models: the conditional model and the cooperative (or promotional) model. The former model is typical of the US, the latter of the EU. The US and EU clauses have four characteristics and structural elements: social obligations, procedural commitments, implementation mechanisms and dispute settlement mechanisms. The main difference between the two types of social clauses lies in the presence (US model) or absence (EU model) of sanctions for breach of obligations. The research question of this dissertation concerns the legal efficacy of social clauses. First, the research reconstructs the historical-legal background and conceptualises social clauses. Second, the study compares the EU and US models from a legal-historical perspective. Third, the dissertation comparatively assesses two fundamental (and so far unique) cases for breach of social obligations: the US v. Guatemala case and the EU v. Republic of Korea case.