Since its introduction into mainstream society two decades ago, ecotourism has become an international phenomenon. Claimed by its proponents to endorse ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable travel to natural areas, ecotourism is in many ways the conceptual fusion of conservation and development. Yet, despite the optimism often associated with the phenomenon, the question of the degree to which it actually contributes to development, however defined, has become a controversial issue. Theorists and practitioners hold a variety of opinions of ecotourism, ranging from cautious optimism (Honey 2008; Ross & Wall 1999) to outright rejection (Carrier & Macleod 2005; Wheeller 2003). Unfortunately, research shows that the poorest of the poor generally bear the burden of ecotourism initiatives without receiving an equitable share of the associated benefits (Stem et al. 2003; Western & Wright 1994). In response, a sustainable livelihoods approach is proposed as a practical means of understanding the complex livelihood strategies employed by indigenous populations. While tourism research has often focused on the economic impacts of ecotourism initiatives, current livelihoods discourse suggests that the poor draw on a wide range of assets and incorporate a variety of livelihood strategies, in their pursuit of economic gain (Ashley 2002; Ashley et al. 2001; Bebbington 1999; Bennett et al. 1999; Zoomers 1999). This discourse is especially timely for pastoral populations living adjacent to protected areas in Kenya. Recent changes in government policy have promoted the subdivision of land for private ownership (Homewood et al. 2009; Leserogol 2005; Lamprey & Reid 2004), an unexpected transformation that has led to the adoption of ecotourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Informed by development theory, tourism theory, and property rights theory, the purpose of this research was to examine the effect of different land tenure regimes on the distribution of benefits accrued from various ecotourism initiatives, and how those benefits impact the livelihoods of the pastoral Maasai living on the periphery of the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Culturally-appropriate, participatory research methods were combined with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to document an indigenous perspective on livelihood sustainability. By adapting the conceptual framework to include cultural and historical capital, it served as a lens for viewing and identifying the culturally embedded meaning associated with the recent privatisation of Maasai property. These changes include: significant increases in income generated from ecotourism initiatives, an increased desire to cultivate land, an enhanced capacity for participating in the decision-making process, and greater diversification in local livelihood strategies. However, the empirical evidence also demonstrated that changing property regimes have led to the increased sedentarisation of these semi-nomadic people, resulting in modifications to their pastoral culture, reductions in their herd sizes, and the occasional obstruction of wildlife migratory patterns through the construction of permanent fences.

Since its introduction into mainstream society two decades ago, ecotourism has become an international phenomenon. Claimed by its proponents to endorse ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable travel to natural areas, ecotourism is in many ways the conceptual fusion of conservation and development. Yet, despite the optimism often associated with the phenomenon, the question of the degree to which it actually contributes to development, however defined, has become a controversial issue. Theorists and practitioners hold a variety of opinions of ecotourism, ranging from cautious optimism (Honey 2008; Ross & Wall 1999) to outright rejection (Carrier & Macleod 2005; Wheeller 2003). Unfortunately, research shows that the poorest of the poor generally bear the burden of ecotourism initiatives without receiving an equitable share of the associated benefits (Stem et al. 2003; Western & Wright 1994). In response, a sustainable livelihoods approach is proposed as a practical means of understanding the complex livelihood strategies employed by indigenous populations. While tourism research has often focused on the economic impacts of ecotourism initiatives, current livelihoods discourse suggests that the poor draw on a wide range of assets and incorporate a variety of livelihood strategies, in their pursuit of economic gain (Ashley 2002; Ashley et al. 2001; Bebbington 1999; Bennett et al. 1999; Zoomers 1999). This discourse is especially timely for pastoral populations living adjacent to protected areas in Kenya. Recent changes in government policy have promoted the subdivision of land for private ownership (Homewood et al. 2009; Leserogol 2005; Lamprey & Reid 2004), an unexpected transformation that has led to the adoption of ecotourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Informed by development theory, tourism theory, and property rights theory, the purpose of this research was to examine the effect of different land tenure regimes on the distribution of benefits accrued from various ecotourism initiatives, and how those benefits impact the livelihoods of the pastoral Maasai living on the periphery of the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Culturally-appropriate, participatory research methods were combined with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to document an indigenous perspective on livelihood sustainability. By adapting the conceptual framework to include cultural and historical capital, it served as a lens for viewing and identifying the culturally embedded meaning associated with the recent privatisation of Maasai property. These changes include: significant increases in income generated from ecotourism initiatives, an increased desire to cultivate land, an enhanced capacity for participating in the decision-making process, and greater diversification in local livelihood strategies. However, the empirical evidence also demonstrated that changing property regimes have led to the increased sedentarisation of these semi-nomadic people, resulting in modifications to their pastoral culture, reductions in their herd sizes, and the occasional obstruction of wildlife migratory patterns through the construction of permanent fences.

Atualmente, a pesca de pequena escala enfrenta diversas dificuldades, dentre as quais se destacam as deficiências estruturais de armazenamento, conservação e processamento do pescado, mas também dos processos de distribuição e comercialização. Uma das principais necessidades de conhecimento consiste no mapeamento e compreensão dos processos e elos das cadeias produtivas das pescarias artesanais. O objetivo desse estudo foi tecer uma investigação comparativa focada na estrutura, função, e desempenho das cadeias produtivas de três sistemas pesqueiros do Estado de São Paulo com significância socioeconômica: o da corvina (Micropogonias furnieri) capturada por redes de emalhe em Ubatuba; o do camarão sete-barbas (Xiphopeneaus kroyeri) capturado por redes de arrasto, no Rio do Meio, Guarujá; e o da manjuba (Anchoviella lepidentostole) capturada por redes de emalhe na Barragem do Valo Grande, em Iguape. Os dados de campo foram coletados durante o período de março/2013 a janeiro/2015 por meio de questionários aplicados em entrevistas com os atores envolvidos nos processos de captura, processamento, distribuição e comercialização do pescado. A cadeia produtiva da manjuba se mostrou como a mais complexa do grupo, com maior número de atores e fluxos de distribuição, alta abrangência de distribuição e diferentes tipos de processamento. Quanto à distribuição dos benefícios, a maior margem de comercialização foi verificada na planta de processamento da cadeia do camarão, enquanto que a menor foi a dos atravessadores das cadeias da corvina e da manjuba. O produto final com maior valor de comercialização no varejo foi a da manjuba eviscerada (7,6 vezes maior que o valor de primeira comercialização). Em relação ao desempenho das cadeias estudadas, os indicadores de equidade, eficiência, e empoderamento apresentaram baixa adesão, sugerindo uma necessidade de melhorias em todos os segmentos. A partir dos métodos e resultados deste estudo, tópicos importantes sobre as cadeias produtivas e de valores da pesca de pequena escala, poderão servir de base para a definição de políticas de gestão mais eficientes visando a sustentabilidade do setor, ou ainda, para a melhoria da qualidade do pescado e dos segmentos envolvidos nessas atividades. / Currently, small-scale fisheries face several difficulties, such as structural deficiencies for fish storage and preservation, but also in the process of distribution and marketing. One of the main knowledge gap is the mapping and understanding of the processes and links of the small-scale fisheries value chains. In this study, a comparative investigation focused on the structure, function and performance of supply chains from three fishery systems with significative socioeconomic relevance in São Paulo State was performed. The systems comprise the whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri) fishery by gillnetters in Ubatuba, the seabob-shrimp (Xiphopeneaus kroyeri) fishery by Rio do Meio\'s trawlers in Guarujá, and the broadband anchovy (Anchoviella lepidentostole) fishery by canoes with gillnets in the Valo Grande Dam, in Iguape. The data were collected at field from March/2013 to January/2015 through questionnaires and inperson surveys with the actors involved in the processes of catch, processing, distribution and sale. The supply chain of broadband anchovy proved to be the most complex, with highest number of actors and distribution flows, high range of distribution and different processing forms. On the distribution of benefits, the highest marketing margin was verified in the processing plant of the seabob-shrimp\'s chain, while the lowest, was identified in the middlemen of croaker and anchovy chains. The final product with largest retail sale value was the eviscerated broadband anchovy (about 7.6 times higher than the first sale value). In regard to equity, efficiency and empowerment criteria on value chains performance, the three fishery systems showed low compliance in all considered indicators, suggesting a need for improvements in all segments. This study obtained relevant details on the supply and value chain of the three small-scale fisheries of São Paulo. These data and the methods proposed may support the definition of management policies more efficient for the sector\'s sustainability, in addition, to improve the quality of fish and human segments involved in these activities.

Atualmente, a pesca de pequena escala enfrenta diversas dificuldades, dentre as quais se destacam as deficiências estruturais de armazenamento, conservação e processamento do pescado, mas também dos processos de distribuição e comercialização. Uma das principais necessidades de conhecimento consiste no mapeamento e compreensão dos processos e elos das cadeias produtivas das pescarias artesanais. O objetivo desse estudo foi tecer uma investigação comparativa focada na estrutura, função, e desempenho das cadeias produtivas de três sistemas pesqueiros do Estado de São Paulo com significância socioeconômica: o da corvina (Micropogonias furnieri) capturada por redes de emalhe em Ubatuba; o do camarão sete-barbas (Xiphopeneaus kroyeri) capturado por redes de arrasto, no Rio do Meio, Guarujá; e o da manjuba (Anchoviella lepidentostole) capturada por redes de emalhe na Barragem do Valo Grande, em Iguape. Os dados de campo foram coletados durante o período de março/2013 a janeiro/2015 por meio de questionários aplicados em entrevistas com os atores envolvidos nos processos de captura, processamento, distribuição e comercialização do pescado. A cadeia produtiva da manjuba se mostrou como a mais complexa do grupo, com maior número de atores e fluxos de distribuição, alta abrangência de distribuição e diferentes tipos de processamento. Quanto à distribuição dos benefícios, a maior margem de comercialização foi verificada na planta de processamento da cadeia do camarão, enquanto que a menor foi a dos atravessadores das cadeias da corvina e da manjuba. O produto final com maior valor de comercialização no varejo foi a da manjuba eviscerada (7,6 vezes maior que o valor de primeira comercialização). Em relação ao desempenho das cadeias estudadas, os indicadores de equidade, eficiência, e empoderamento apresentaram baixa adesão, sugerindo uma necessidade de melhorias em todos os segmentos. A partir dos métodos e resultados deste estudo, tópicos importantes sobre as cadeias produtivas e de valores da pesca de pequena escala, poderão servir de base para a definição de políticas de gestão mais eficientes visando a sustentabilidade do setor, ou ainda, para a melhoria da qualidade do pescado e dos segmentos envolvidos nessas atividades. / Currently, small-scale fisheries face several difficulties, such as structural deficiencies for fish storage and preservation, but also in the process of distribution and marketing. One of the main knowledge gap is the mapping and understanding of the processes and links of the small-scale fisheries value chains. In this study, a comparative investigation focused on the structure, function and performance of supply chains from three fishery systems with significative socioeconomic relevance in São Paulo State was performed. The systems comprise the whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri) fishery by gillnetters in Ubatuba, the seabob-shrimp (Xiphopeneaus kroyeri) fishery by Rio do Meio\'s trawlers in Guarujá, and the broadband anchovy (Anchoviella lepidentostole) fishery by canoes with gillnets in the Valo Grande Dam, in Iguape. The data were collected at field from March/2013 to January/2015 through questionnaires and inperson surveys with the actors involved in the processes of catch, processing, distribution and sale. The supply chain of broadband anchovy proved to be the most complex, with highest number of actors and distribution flows, high range of distribution and different processing forms. On the distribution of benefits, the highest marketing margin was verified in the processing plant of the seabob-shrimp\'s chain, while the lowest, was identified in the middlemen of croaker and anchovy chains. The final product with largest retail sale value was the eviscerated broadband anchovy (about 7.6 times higher than the first sale value). In regard to equity, efficiency and empowerment criteria on value chains performance, the three fishery systems showed low compliance in all considered indicators, suggesting a need for improvements in all segments. This study obtained relevant details on the supply and value chain of the three small-scale fisheries of São Paulo. These data and the methods proposed may support the definition of management policies more efficient for the sector\'s sustainability, in addition, to improve the quality of fish and human segments involved in these activities.

Temporary closures of octopus fishing areas constitute a promising co-management measure that aims to improve local governance, food security and incomes in coastal small-scale fishing communities. Although positive social and economic outcomes of temporary closures are increasingly reported, the underlying social-ecological and ecological interactions, and their impact on closure benefits are rarely studied. This lack of systemic understanding may lead to undesired outcomes. Here, I extend an existing agent-based model of temporary closures to explore the influence of individual octopus movements on ecological outcomes and fishers’ benefits in Zanzibar. First, I conceptualized the octopus closure system by analyzing empirical qualitative data and literature. Next, I iteratively developed and tested an individual-based model extension. This extension simulates between-den movements across a hypothetical seascape and formalizes intrinsic attributes of Octopus cyanea such as movement patterns and maturity stages. I analyzed the effects of varying closure size of fishing grounds temporarily closed to illustrate potential implications for outcomes of octopus closures. Simulation results show that individual octopus movements triggered by fishing activities have noticeable impacts on octopus sizes, their spatial and temporal distribution, and fishers’ catches, particularly when considering different social groups that depend on the fishery. Scenarios with closures in place show higher mean octopus weight in closed areas in contrast to open-access areas. Mean catches for women foot-fishers are lower compared to freedivers’ catches and even slightly lower when allowing octopuses to move in response to disturbance in all scenarios. Catch rates and distribution of mature octopuses are highly sensitive to closure size revealing a social-ecological trade-off when implementing larger closures. This study demonstrates an approach to integrating individual octopus movements and interactions between fishers and octopuses in a fishery management context, and suggests that reactive movement of octopus contributes to unequal distribution of the closure benefits between different social groups. / Octopus and People In Novel Transdisciplinary Simulations (OctoPINTS project)

Biodiversity loss is one of the major environmental threats facing the planet. Incentive-based conservation is one means to reduce human pressure on wildlife by providing economic incentives for resource-dependent people to protect the environment. Marine wildlife tourism is one of the fastest growing tourism sectors globally and is viewed as an important incentive-based approach for achieving marine conservation goals. However, few studies have linked participation in the provisioning of marine wildlife tourism activities with positive social and ecological conservation outcomes. The goal of this dissertation is to provide greater understanding of the conservation value of marine wildlife tourism using whale shark tourism as a case study with a main focus on social conservation outcomes amongst tourism providers. Positive changes in perceptions, attitudes and values towards target species and their environments can be an important element of incentive-based conservation. The study has the following objectives: (1) to assess the status of the global whale shark tourism industry, including types (e.g., captive, non-captive), real and potential impacts, conservation value and management challenges and best practices; (2) to examine the ethics of provisioning whale sharks in Oslob, Philippines, the largest, non-captive viewing site in the world; (3) to determine if working in ecotourism changed the attitudes and behaviours of locals towards whale sharks and the ocean, and if tourism type affects those outcomes; (4) to assess the marine wildlife value orientations of locals working in whale shark tourism to achieve greater understanding of the factors influencing their conservation attitudes and behaviours; (5) to explore the potential long-term impacts of poorly conceived incentive-based conservation projects on social and ecological conservation outcomes; and (6) to re-examine and update the conceptual and theoretical background for wildlife tourism in light of the findings of this study. Methods include a comprehensive literature review, tourist surveys, social media content analysis, and interviews with locals working in whale shark tourism at four sites in the Philippines. Results suggest that marine wildlife tourism can play an important role in changing locals’ attitudes and behaviours towards the focal species and habitat; however, smaller-scale, more established sites had greater conservation value than the mass tourism or failed sites suggesting that small-scale, community-based ecotourism is the best approach to meeting conservation goals of marine wildlife tourism. Yet, few tourism sites meet these standards. Global standards are needed to ensure whale shark tourism activities meet desired conservation goals. Such standards should include management requirements (e.g., licensing, mandatory education program) and interaction guidelines (e.g. minimum viewing distances, limits on the number of swimmers/boats, etc.). The findings also emphasise that economics should not be the only or primary metric used to measure conservation success; rather, the focus should be on assessing a more comprehensive range of social and ecological conservation outcomes of these activities. / Graduate / 2020-04-16