Understanding the process of decomposition is extremely important and aids in criminal investigations, especially when attempting to estimate the post mortem interval (PMI). Although several studies have been conducted on the decomposition patterns in surface remains, much less is known about this process in buried remains. By quantifying decomposition rates, factors influencing decomposition and research on the process of decomposition can be standardised and validated in a South African setting. The aim of this study was to record decomposition stages and rates of buried remains and to compare it to that of remains decomposing on the surface. Twenty five pigs (Sus scrofa; 45-80 kg) were buried and excavated at different post mortem intervals [7 days (1 week), 14 days (2 weeks), 33 days (1 month), 92 days (3 months) and 183 days (6 months)]. Stages of decomposition were scored according to separate categories for different anatomical regions based on standardised methods, and photographed. The point values for each region were added to determine the total body score (TBS), which represents the stage of decomposition for each pig. When studying decomposition, accumulated degree days (ADD) are effective in standardising the effect of variables (i.e., temperature) that influence the decay process. It also enables researchers to replicate experiments and compare results. In this study, ADD were used to measure the rate of decomposition and to compare decomposition rates between buried and surface remains. Results indicated that early stages of decomposition occured rapidly for both surface and buried remains within 7-33 days. Differences in the degree of decay were especially noticeable with the buried, 7 day interval pigs that displayed variations in discolouration in the lower abdomen and trunk. Between 14 and 33 days, buried pigs displayed common features associated with the early stages of decomposition, such as discolouration and bloating. The pigs then reached a stage of advanced decay where little change was observed in the next ±90-183 days after internment. Similar patterns of decomposition were observed for surface remains with rapid decay during the early stages of decay where after a plateau phase was reached during advanced decay. However, as expected, the surface remains reached higher TBS scores during similar intervals. iii In this study, the decomposition rates of buried remains were mostly influenced by being buried at an average depth of 0.75 m which could have resulted in lower in-soil temperatures and limited insect activity at a depth of 0.75 m on the remains. Also, adipocere presented itself on the remains with the 33 day PMI pigs, the 92 day PMI pigs and 183 day PMI pigs. Adipocere is capable of degrading over a prolonged period which reduces the rate of decay in a conducive environment (i.e., burial in soil). Overall, surface and buried pigs decompose with similar patterns, but buried pigs decompose at a much slower rate, reaching lower TBS values relative to similar PMIs in surface remains. This suggests that burial does have a significant effect on the rate of decomposition. Results from this study suggest that when using TBS guidelines on buried remains in the Central Highveld region of South Africa, buried remains will have, on average, a lower TBS score (7.4) than surface remains within a similar post mortem interval. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Anatomy / Unrestricted

This study considers how fundamental shifts in the relationship between religion, community, and public life are reflected in the archaeological record of four excavation sites in the Amana Colonies—a former school (1870-present), a church (1865-present), a domestic outhouse (1860s-present), and a remote farmstead (1860s-1890s). The Colonies are a collection of seven villages founded and settled by German pietists in the mid-nineteenth century. In 1932 this community voluntarily abandoned the religiously-led communal lifestyle that it had practiced in Iowa for 76 years—a fundamental alteration in community structure that became known as the Great Change. This study was initially formulated to examine material culture—specifically privy refuse—from before and after the Great Change with an eye toward identifying shifts in the kinds, amounts, or origins of material goods used and discarded by Amana citizens. Though the original questions posed by the study could not be fully addressed with the data available, the sampled sites did offer several insights into the ways that the Amana citizens used space and material culture before and after the communal period. Artifacts collected at a domestic outhouse suggest that the structure had been re-purposed for use in the disposal of food preparation waste after the Great Change. A comparison of artifact densities between the sites indicated a high intensity of use of the grounds of the church, likely reflective of the community’s organization around religious identity. Finally, an analysis of the relative frequency of three types of artifacts found in quantity at all sites (metal, glass, and ceramic) led to the conclusion that the remote farmstead likely reflects a lifeway outside the Amana norm, and may suggest the ways in which Amana material usage was shaped by communal living.

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This thesis will examine theories and methodologies regarding the balance of natural aesthetics and architectural conservation in the preservation of architectural remains. Ruins have been used as historic garden "follies" for centuries, this thesis will examine how practitioners have balanced the ecological needs of the gardens with the conservation and preservation of ruins. The primary case study used for this thesis will be the Gardens of Ninfa in the Province of Latina, Italy, where conservators and landscapers have worked to preserve the gardens of the noble Caetani family and the Roman and Medieval ruins contained within the gardens for centuries. This thesis will examine how they chose to treat, interpret, and display the ruins within the existing garden landscape. This thesis will also explore the consequences of this approach based on the backdrop of the established theoretical principles of John Ruskin and Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc, as well as the prevailing Italian theories on restoration of ancient ruins as given by prominent Italian theoreticians. Also examined will be the demonstrated capability and discussion of biologically-based conservation methods used in ruins conservation practice. / 0 / SPK / specialcollections@tulane.edu

This work is concerned with the development of the Progressives, a political faction of the Republican Party which was active in Wisconsin during the first half of the 20th century, throughout the Great Depression, and the Post-War era. It was during this period that the Progressives broke with the Republican Party, formed the Progressive Party and gained control of the state from 1934 through 1938, before finally dissolving in 1946, with many members moving into the Democratic Party, where they rejuvenated that moribund state party. This work, furthermore, focuses on the those Progressive leaders who operated in Wisconsin’s northern counties, a region which had a long tradition of Progressivism, the influence they had upon the creation of the Progressive Party and the political realignment which followed its dissolution.

This study examines Middle to Late Woodland subsistence practices in the Gulf coastal zone through faunal analysis of the archaeological features excavated at the Bird Hammock site (8Wa30). Bird Hammock was excavated by Judith Bense in 1968 under the direction of David Phelps. She concluded that the site was occupied by Late Swift Creek (A.D. 150 – 350) and Early Weeden Island (A.D. 200 – 1000) peoples. Bense's thesis focused on ceramic and lithic analysis, but contained only a preliminary faunal identification. Because faunal studies and zooarchaeology were just beginning to be developed, Bense did not quantify the faunal remains. A primary goal of this study, therefore, is to quantify the faunal remains utilizing modern zooarchaeological methods. Vertebrate and invertebrate remains from four features, and one comparative midden level, were selected and analyzed. Using these data, and a sample of comparative sites, a secondary goal of this thesis is to model Middle to Late Woodland subsistence practices in the Gulf coastal zone of Florida. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2004. / August 12, 2004. / Swift Creek Culture, Weeden Island Culture, Southeastern Archaeology, Zooarchaeology / Includes bibliographical references. / Rochelle Marrinan, Professor Directing Thesis; Glen Doran, Committee Member; William Parkinson, Committee Member.

This thesis presents an analysis of faunal materials recovered from features at Fort Mitchell during excavations directed by J.W. Cottier between 2000 and 2002. Fort Mitchell was located west of the Chattahoochee River, in present Russell County, Alabama. Few records have been identified that discuss how these individuals, posted far in the American wilderness, were provisioned. It is expected that they primarily utilized domesticated animals for the majority of their meat diet. Changes in funding, supply delays, and a frontier location may have made reliance on domestic meat sources less than certain. The degree to which the inhabitants utilized local resources, both wild and domesticated, is also unknown. This study endeavors to understand the meat component of diet through the analysis of selected features from the fort interior. The analysis of this material improves our understanding of the procurement of animal species, and the animal portion of the diet, of the inhabitants of Fort Mitchell between 1813 and 1840. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Fall Semester, 2004. / October 27, 2004. / Uniform Buttons, Rations, Subsistence, Domesticates, Fauna, Creek, Frontier Fort, Alabama Frontier, War Of 1812, Creek War, Food Remains / Includes bibliographical references. / Rochelle Marrinan, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael Russo, Outside Committee Member; Glen Doran, Committee Member.

This study examined the differences in decomposition rates and the resulting postmortem submergence interval (PMSI) of stillborn pigs and decapitated adult pig heads enclosed in plastic trash bags. Sixteen neonate pigs were divided into two variable categories: exposed and submerged in water, enclosed in a plastic trash bag and submerged in water. Upon recovery, each sample was assigned a Total Body Score. Eighteen decapitated adult pig heads were divided into two variable categories: nine heads were enclosed in plastic trash bags, and nine heads left exposed in the water. Twelve decapitated pig heads were divided into two terrestrial variable categories: six heads were enclosed in plastic trash bags and allowed to decompose on land, and six heads were left exposed on land. Accumulated degree-days (ADD) were calculated following the scoring guides provided in Moffatt et al. (2016), Megyesi et al. (2005) and Heaton et al. (2010). These guides were used to create a baseline decomposition rate established from the control groups decay rate. This baseline in the decomposition rate was then used to establish a measurable difference between exposed and enclosed samples. It was hypothesized that head samples submerged (enclosed/exposed) would decompose slower than the terrestrial samples (enclosed/exposed). It was further hypothesized that all enclosed/submerged samples would decompose slower than the exposed/terrestrial remains. A univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) test found no statistically significant interactions between submerged, enclosed or exposed remains, indicating that the enclosure of remains in a plastic trash bag, and subsequent submergence or not did not affect the decomposition rate of either sample. An additional ANOVA found statistically significant differences between the rate of neonate sample decomposition and adult head sample decomposition. Paired sample t-tests produced statistically significant results that indicate the inaccuracy of the ADD calculation methods developed by Megyesi et al. (2005) and Heaton et al. (2010) to neonate-sized remains, decapitated heads, submerged enclosed/exposed samples or terrestrial enclosed/exposed samples.

The accurate estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI) is one of the most important determinations in a forensic investigation of decomposing human remains. Forensic entomology has gained popularity in death investigation due to its reliability and precision in the estimation of the minimum postmortem interval (mPMI). Forensically significant insects are mainly necrophagous species, which feed only on decomposing animal matter, and the most common necrophagous insects are the blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Estimations of the mPMI by entomological methods are made using the known developmental rates of various species of blowfly and via the successional patterns of the carrion insect community in a given region. It is generally assumed that blowflies oviposit quickly after death, so in many cases this time may equate to the time since death. The precision of mPMI estimations based on the developmental rates of blowflies often relies on this assumption. Rainfall may effect decomposition by inhibiting access of insects to the cadaver or carcass for oviposition. The current study investigated the effects of rainfall on blowfly activity, behavior, and overall decomposition of decaying animal material in an outdoor environment in the northeastern United States, conducted at the Boston University Outdoor Research Facility (ORF). It was hypothesized that natural rainfall, typically light to moderate in the geographic area of study, will disturb initial blowfly activity by acting as a physical barrier, diminishing access to the remains, and creating a delay in colonization and subsequent larval development. This hypothesized delay would result in an underestimation of the mPMI by entomological methods when rainfall has occurred. Also examined were several questions about the nocturnal behavior of blowflies and their activity in heavy rain. In the experimental trial 12 pig (Sus scrofa) heads were exposed under normal conditions (N; no rain controls), and 15 pig heads were exposed under rainy conditions (R; rain treatment), split into uncovered (N, n=6; R, n=5), covered (NC, n=5; RC, n=5), and covered partially (RCP, n=5) treatments. Additionally, there were three pig heads used in a preliminary trial and three pig heads exposed in an active rain trial. Generally, the results show that while a negative correlation exists between the amount of rainfall experienced and the coded number of flies observed, the light to moderate rainfall typical of many rainy days in the northeastern Unites States will not totally inhibit blowfly activity or disturb established maggot masses. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) determined that there was no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05) between the N, NC, R, RC, and RCP treatments in the number of days it took to reach the advanced decomposition stage. While constant, heavy rainfall may inhibit blowfly activity; the results suggest that the irregularity of natural rainfall would rarely produce the conditions necessary for this to make a significant impact estimation of the PMI by entomological methods, although further studies are needed to confirm this conclusion. The results show a positive correlation between solar radiation and the coded number of flies observed. Time of day as a function of the coded number of flies observed during the first 48 hours of exposure forms a bimodal bell curve, confirming that blowflies are diurnal in their natural environment. Additionally, evidence of scavenging by turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) and some unknown animal(s) was observed. The results of this study illustrate the complicated, multivariable nature of the process of decomposition. This study provides preliminary data on the effect of rainfall on blowfly activity and overall decomposition, while future studies will be required to determine the effects of the duration and the intensity of rainfall.