Yes / The character of dissolved organic matter (DOM) present in drinking water treatment systems greatly impacts its treatability by coagulation–flocculation. Powdered activated carbon dosing has been suggested to enhance DOM removal when combined with coagulation–flocculation. However, optimising powdered activated carbon (PAC) dosing requires further research. In this study, fluorescence spectroscopy combined with parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and liquid chromatography with organic carbon detection (LC–OCD) has been used to characterise DOM removal in three ways: (a) coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation without PAC dosing, (b) PAC dosing prior to- and (c) PAC dosing during coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation treatment. It was shown that only coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation preferentially removed biopolymer and humic substance chromatographic fractions and fluorescent DOM, whereas dosing PAC preferentially removed building blocks and low molecular weight neutral chromatographic fractions. The DOM treatability that was achieved when PAC was dosed both prior to- and during coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation was comparable, but higher than what was achieved without any PAC dosing. Introduction of PAC to the coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation process significantly improved DOM removal, with fluorescent components removed by 97%. This study also highlights that a combination of fluorescence spectroscopy and LC–OCD is essential to track the removal of both, fluorescent and non-fluorescent DOM fractions and understand their impacts on DOM treatability when using different treatment processes. Overall, lower residual DOM concentrations were obtained in the treated water when PAC adsorption and the coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation processes were combined when compared to treating the water with only one of the processes, despite differences in source water character of DOM.

Termen koliforma bakterier beskriver en grupp indikatororganismer som används för att bedöma renligheten och integriteten hos reningsverk samt distributionssystem som nyttjas vid dricksvattenproduktion. För närvarande ställer styrande förvaltningsmyndigheter endast krav på detektion av antalet koliforma bakterier i dricksvatten via odlingsbaserade metoder. Dessa odlingsbaserade metoder särskiljer och upptäcker koliforma bakterier, och Escherichia coli specifikt, baserat på deras tillväxt samt enzymatiska aktivitet på selektiva kromogena och fluorogena agarplattor. Den definition av koliforma bakterier som dessa lagstiftningar ger upphov till identifierar endast koliforma bakterier baserat på deras metabolism och enzymatiska aktivitet, vilket är otillräckligt för att taxonomiskt identifiera olika bakterier inom denna grupp. För att uppnå detta krävs en definition baserad på fylogenetik. Detta masterexamensarbete beskriver undersökandet av metoder för taxonomisk identifiering av koliforma bakterier baserade på en kombination av odlingsbaserade och molekylära metoder. Vattenprover från Mälaren och Lovös vattenverk i Stockholm användes för att isolera koliforma bakterier via membranfiltrering, följt av odling på selektiva medier. De isolerade kolonierna och membranfiltrerna användes för att extrahera genomiskt DNA, följt av amplifiering av specifika gener associerade med E. coli och koliforma bakterier via PCR. Dessa inkluderade lacZ-genen, uidA-genen, yaiO-genen och 16S rRNA-genen. Produkterna från lyckade genamplifieringar sekvenserades för att taxonomiskt klassificera sekvenserna och identifiera olika koliforma bakterier. Två vattenprover med inloppsvatten skickades även för metagenomisk analys av dess mikrobiom. Dessa resulta indikerade att ett odlingssteg var nödvändigt för att producera tillräckligt med biomassa och genomiskt DNA för att lyckas med genamplifieringar utan att behöva filtrera enorma mängder vattenprover. De utvalda primrarna uppvisade även varierande framgång i att amplifiera målgenerna hos koliforma bakterier. Bakteriekoloniernas fysiska utseende på de selektiva agarplattorna och resultaten från genamplifieringarna uppvisade inte sammanhängande resultat, vilket indikerar ett behov av att ytterligare undersöka och optimera de utförda PCR-protokollen. Trots detta visade metoden potential för taxonomisk identifiering av koliforma bakterier. 16S rRNA-gensekvenserna möjliggjorde identifieringen av potentiella kontaminanter som grampositiva bakterier (Micrococcus and Staphylococcus) och andra, icke-koliforma, gramnegativa bakterier (Pseudomonas and Aeromonas) på de selektiva agarplattorna. Denna information kombinerat med bakteriekoloniernas utseende på agarplattorna och resultaten från övriga genamplifieringar kan möjliggöra ett sätt att skilja på falska positiva, falska negativa, sanna positiva och sanna negativa resultat från nuvarande detektionsmetoder för koliforma bakterier. Ytterligare optimering av olika aspekter av metoderna och arbetsflödet kring identifiering av koliforma bakterier är nödvändig innan man kan införa ett liknande tillvägagångssätt i ett reningsverk. / The term coliform bacteria describes a group of indicator organisms used to measure the cleanliness and integrity of drinking water treatment plants and distribution systems. Currently, the only legal requirement set by government agencies pertains to the detection and enumeration of these bacteria via cultivation-based methods. These methods distinguish coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli based on their growth and enzymatic activity on selective chromogenic and fluorogenic agar plates. However, the legislative definition concerning their metabolism and enzymatic production is insufficient to identify bacteria within this group taxonomically. Instead, a definition based on phylogenetics is required. This master’s thesis describes the exploration of methods for the characterization and identification of coliform bacteria via a combination of cultivation-based and molecular methods. Water samples from Lake Mälaren and the Lovö drinking water treatment plant in Stockholm were used to isolate coliform bacteria via membrane filtration and cultivation on a selective agar medium. The isolated colonies and filtered membranes were subjected to DNA extraction, followed by gene amplification of target genes associated with E. coli and coliform bacteria via PCR. This included the lacZ gene, the uidA gene, the yaiO gene, and the 16S rRNA gene. Successful gene amplicons were sent for sequencing to assign taxonomic values to the sequences and identify coliform bacteria. Two inlet water samples were also sent for metagenomic analysis of the microbiome. An incubation step was necessary to gather enough biomass to extract sufficient genomic DNA for gene amplifications and avoid the need to filtrate large volumes of water. The selected primer pairs exhibited various degrees of success in amplifying the targeted genes of coliform bacteria. The physical appearance of coliform colonies on the selective chromogenic agar plates and the results from the gene amplifications displayed no discernable pattern, indicating the need to further investigate and optimize the PCR procedures. However, the method indicated a potential for coliform bacteria identification. 16S rRNA gene sequences allowed for the distinction of potential contaminants on the selective agar media in gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus and Staphylococcus) and other non-coliform, gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas and Aeromonas). In conjunction with the physical appearance of bacterial colonies on selective media and successful gene amplicons of the targeted genes, this information could allow one to distinguish between false positive, false negative, true positive, and true negative results from current coliform detection and enumeration methods. Further optimization of various aspects of the coliform bacteria identification methods is necessary before introducing a similar approach to a water treatment plant context.

There has been a recent increase in the adoption of point-of-use (POU) household water filters as an alternative to untreated tap water or bottled water. POU filters certified for lead removal have recently been distributed by the hundreds of thousands in communities amid water lead crises, as a temporary solution to protect consumers from elevated water lead levels. This thesis rigorously examines the efficacy of POU lead certified filters in removing lead under a wide range of conditions, and evaluates premature clogging due to iron and associated impacts on the cost analysis of using filters instead of bottled water. In testing ten brands of POU devices against up to four different waters for lead removal, most devices consistently removed lead to below the 5 µg/L FDA bottled water standard. However, several failures were documented, including manufacturing flaws, premature clogging, and inconsistency between duplicate filters. When waters containing more difficult to treat lead particulates were synthesized, treated water often had lead concentrations greater than the 5 µg/L bottled water standard and sometimes were even over the 15 µg/L EPA action level. In some cases, less than 50% of the particulate lead was removed by the filter, thereby replicating some problems with these devices identified in the field. While POUs usually reduced water lead concentrations by at least 80%, a combination of manufacturing issues and difficult to treat waters can cause treated water to exceed expectations. Consumers often purchase POU devices to remove particles and lead in waters that also contain high iron, prompting studies to examine the role of iron on filter performance. When we exposed two brands of pour-through POUs to waters with both high lead and iron, lead removal performance was generally not compromised, as treated water typically had lead concentrations less than 5 µg/L. One case was observed in which lead passed through a set of filters at high levels in association with iron, confirming expectations that in some waters iron could cause formation of lead particulates that are difficult to remove. High levels of iron sometimes rapidly clogged the POU filters, preventing them from reaching their rated capacity and increasing operational costs and time to filter water. Specifically, 50% (3/6) of the filters tested clogged prematurely at an iron concentration of 0.37 mg/L, 66% (4/6) at 1 mg/L and 100% (6/6) at 20 mg/L. A cost analysis for POUs vs. bottled water demonstrated that in waters with higher iron, store-brand bottled water was often the more cost-effective option, especially when iron levels were significantly higher than the EPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (0.3 mg/L). The lower costs of bottled water in these situations was even more apparent if consumer time was factored into the analysis. / Master of Science / There has been a recent increase in the use of household water filters as an alternative to tap water or bottled water. Filters that are certified for lead removal have recently been distributed by the hundreds of thousands in communities amid water lead crises, as a temporary solution to protect consumers from elevated water lead levels. This thesis rigorously examines the effectiveness of these filters under a wide range of conditions. When tested against up to four different waters for lead removal, most filters consistently reduced lead to below the concentrations allowed in bottled water. In cases where the filters did not perform as expected, several filter failure modes were identified, including manufacturing flaws, filter clogging, and inconsistency between duplicate filters. In addition to these failures, when a water that contained particulate lead that was difficult to filter, as little as 50% of the lead was removed. While household filters often significantly reduce water lead concentrations, a combination of manufacturing issues and difficult to treat waters can cause poor performance. In many cases, consumers purchase filters to remove particles or lead in waters that also contain iron, which caused us to investigate the effect of iron on filter performance. When two brands of pour-through filters were tested against waters with both lead and iron, lead removal performance was generally not compromised. One exceptional case was observed where both high levels of lead and iron passed through the filters, leading us to believe that iron in some waters could create conditions where lead is more difficult to remove. In many cases, the presence of iron caused filters to dramatically slow down or clog. Premature clogging due to iron prevented filters from reaching their rated capacity and, in doing so, significantly increased cost and filter times. A cost analysis for filters vs. bottled water demonstrated that in waters with higher iron, store-brand bottled water was often the more cost-effective option, especially in waters with higher levels of iron. The lower costs of bottled water in these situations was even more apparent if consumer time was factored into the analysis.

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the academic requirement for the degree of (M.Tech.: Chemical Engineering), Durban University of Technology, South Africa, Durban, 2015. / Woven Fibre Microfiltration (WFMF) membranes have several advantages over its competitors with respect to durability, making it a favourable alternative for the developing world and operation during rough conditions. Wide application of membrane technology has been limited by membrane fouling. The durability of the WFMF membrane allows more options for flux enhancement and cleaning methods that can be used with the membranes even if they are vigorous. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to develop and evaluate flux enhancement and cleaning strategies for WFMF membranes. Feed samples with high contents of organics and turbidity were required for the study. Based on this, two rivers which are Umkomaasi and Duzi River were identified to satisfy these criteria. A synthetic feed with similar fouling characteristics as the two river water was prepared and used for this study. The synthetic feed solution was made up of 2 g/ℓ of river clay in tap water and 0.5% domestic sewerage was added into the solution accounting for 2% of the total volume. A membrane filtration unit was used for this study. The unit consisted of a pack of five membrane modules which were fully immersed into a 100 litres filtration tank. The system was operated under gravity and the level in the filtration tank was kept constant by a level float. The study focused on evaluating the performance of the woven fibre membrane filtration unit with respect to its fouling propensity to different feed samples. It also evaluated and developed flux enhancement and cleaning strategies and flux restoration after fouling. The results were compared to a base case for flux enhancement and pure water fluxes for cleaning. The WFMF membrane was found to be prone to both internal and external fouling when used in the treatment of raw water (synthetic feed). Internal fouling was found to occur quickly in the first few minutes of filtration and it was the major contributor for the loss of flux from the WFMF membrane. The fouling mechanism responsible for internal fouling was found to be largely pore blocking and pore narrowing due to particle adsorption on/in the membrane pores. The structure (pore size, material and surface layout) of the WFMF membrane was found to be the main cause that made it prone to internal fouling. The IV major fouling of the WFMF membrane was due to internal fouling, a high aeration rate of 30 ℓ/min had minimal effect on the fouling reduction. An aeration rate of 30 ℓ/min improved the average flux by only 36%, where a combination of intermittent backwashing with brushing and intermittent backwashing with aeration (aeration during backwashing only) improved average flux by 187% and 135% respectively. Pre-coating the WFMF membrane with lime reduced the effects of pore plugging and particle adsorption on the membrane and improved the average flux by 66%. The cleaning strategies that were most successful in pure water flux (PWF) recovery were high pressure cleaning and a combination of soaking and brushing the membrane in a 0.1% NaOCl (desired) solution. PWF recovery by these two methods was 97% and 95% respectively. Based on these findings, it was concluded that the WFMF membrane is susceptible to pore plugging by colloidal material and adsorption/attachment by microbiological contaminants which took effect in the first hour of filtration. This led to a 50% loss in flux. Also, a single flux enhancement strategy proved insufficient to maintain a high flux successfully. Therefore, combined flux enhancement strategies yielded the best results.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Engineering: Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / River water is a life supporting watercourse to most communities in rural areas. It is used for both human and animal consumption, and is well becoming a collection channel for defecation and urination due to shortage or lack of access to running water and sanitation facilities. This has resulted to the contamination of water sources, which poses a great risk to human health. This has motivated researchers to study simple but yet robust systems to produce safe drinking water. Photocatalysis is one of such emerging disinfection technologies. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) which is one of the basic materials used for paint manufacturing has emerged as an excellent photocatalyst material for water purification. TiO2 was selected in this study because it is locally available with a potential to open a new market in water purification for the manufacturers. The setback in previous studies is the recovery of nano-scaled TiO2 (nTiO2) after purification when used as a suspension in treated water. Thus this study evaluates the performance of four grades of micro-scaled TiO2 (mTiO2) on the degradation of organic matters, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliform in river water and to investigate the percentage recovery of the mTiO2 using a locally manufactured Polyester Woven Fabric Microfiltration (PWFMF) membrane. The PWFMF though uncharacterized has been used in a number of studies for treating domestic and industrial waste waters. The best-performing grade was used to optimize the degradation efficiency of E. coli in river water using the Design of Experiments (DOE) methodology. Grade 2 of the mTiO2, which is hydrated titanium dioxide with additions (ahTiO2) of particle size range of 0.2 – 53 µm at a concentration of 2.5 g/l displayed an advantageous photocatalytic activity. The results show that 80 % of the organics were removed in 3 hours and increased to 93% after 6 hours. Two particle size ranges of 0.2 – 53 µm and 54 – 75 µm at a concentration of 5 g/l degraded organic matters to 90 % and 77 % in 3 hours respectively. The particle size range of 0.2 – 53 µm at a concentration of 5 g/l was then filtered using a PWFMF and turbidities went below 1 NTU after 20 minutes from feed turbidity of 470 NTU for all three trials. The average percentage recovery in 2 hours was 98.91 %. The four grades of mTiO2 were analyzed for E. coli and total coliform for 4 hours at concentrations of 2, 5 and 7 g/l. Grade 2 achieved the E. coli specification of 0 count/ 100 mL at 5 g/l in 2 hours and at 7 g/l in 0.5 hours. Grade 4 E. coli specification was achieved with 7g/l in 4 hours. Grades 2 and 4 performed better since they both achieved the E. coli and total coliform specifications. Grade 2 was the best performing grade and was considered for statistical studies. Grade 2 was then used on a comparative study between the Central Composite Design (CCD) and Box-Behnken Design (BBD), which are two of the major Response Surface Methodologies (RSM). The CCD compared to BBD provides high quality predictions over the entire design space. The CCD obtained optimum results for concentration of mTiO2 (X1), temperature (X2), initial pH (X3) and aeration (X4) which were 6.94 g/l, 28.75 OC, pH = 6.04, and 13.35 L/min for the maximum degradation efficiency of 99.85 % which showed comparable optimum results to the BBD that were 6.45 g/l, 28.28 OC, pH = 6.02 and 12.21 L/min for the maximum degradation efficiency of 99.80%. These theoretical model results were validated by practical experiments that produced the maximum degradation efficiency for CCD and BBD of 99.67 and 99.26 % respectively. Grade 2 of the mTiO2 can be used as a photocatalyst for river water purification due to its strong ability for the removal of E. coli. The additions used in grades 2 and 4 during production improved the photocatalytic activity. The PWFMF membrane showed a great performance of above 98 % particle recovery of mTiO2 from treated water, although there was an indication that the smallest particles were passing through the membrane. The RSM results gave approximately the same optimum results that were well within the limits, which were experimentally validated and showed that the models were sustainable. It is recommended that the effect of additions be studied on the structures or the charge stability of the two grades. / M

Os filtros de fibras flexíveis são módulos de filtração direta cujo leito filtrante é formado por micro fibras de poliamida, permitindo altas eficiências de remoção de sólidos suspensos, e aplicação de altas taxas de filtração. O presente estudo avaliou tal configuração de filtro utilizando fibras de algodão mercerizado e poliéster na forma de fios. Foram realizados testes de resistência dos fios a meios com características químicas distintas - alcalino, ácido e com cloro residual. Foi realizada caracterização das fibras estudadas através de Microscopia Óptica e Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura. Foram construídos 4 filtros com diâmetro interno de 28 mm, e porosidade 67% (algodão), e 75% (poliéster), sendo 2 filtros constituídos de fibras de algodão mercerizado - comprimento de leito 60 e 100 cm; e 2 filtros constituídos de fibras de poliéster - comprimento de leito 60 e 100 cm. Foi utilizada para alimentação dos filtros água sintética de turbidez 7,7 ± 0,3 uT, e cor aparente 97 ± 5,0 uC, e realizada coagulação in-line com 22,5mg/L e 15 mg/L (este último valor somente para os filtros de 100 cm) de sulfato de alumínio. Foram avaliadas taxas de filtração de 40, 60, 80, 100 e 120 m/h. Os limites de turbidez estabelecidos para o filtrado foram de 1 e 2 uT. Os filtros de fibras flexíveis de algodão mercerizado e poliéster de leito 60 cm só conseguiram atingir os limites de turbidez até taxa de 80 m/h. Os filtros de leito 100 cm atingiram os limites satisfatoriamente em todas as taxas de filtração. Os filtros de poliéster obtiveram carreiras de filtração mais longas do que as obtidas pelos filtros de algodão, além de apresentarem perdas de carga menores. Exceto para taxa 40 e 60 m/h para o filtro de algodão mercerizado, todas as outras taxas em ambos os filtros obtiveram desempenhos melhores (carreiras de filtração longas, e filtrado de melhor qualidade) com dosagem menor de coagulante. Esse estudo mostrou potencial no uso das fibras de algodão mercerizado e poliéster nos filtros de fibras flexíveis aplicados em tratamento de água para abastecimento. Sugere-se estudos avançados para aplicação no Brasil de tal tecnologia. / The flexible fiber filters are direct filtration modules which filter media is made of polyamide micro fibers, obtaining high solids removal efficiency, and high filtration rates. This study evaluated the performance of the filter using mercerized cotton and polyester fibers. Tests of fibers resistance due to alkaline, acid and chlorinated environments were realized at the present research. The fibers were also analyzed by means of Optic and Scanning Electronic Microscopy. Four field-scale filters with an internal diameter of 28mm, porosity of 67% (cotton), and 75% (polyester) were installed; two of them made of mercerized cotton fiber- high of 60 and 100 cm; and two made of polyester fiber - high of 60 and 100 cm. A synthetic water was used as influent - turbidity 7,7 ± 0,3 uT, and color 97 ± 5,0 uC. In-line coagulation was used with 22,5 mg/L and 15 mg/L (this last value was only applied on 100cm length filters) of aluminium sulfate. The filtration rates studied were 40, 60, 80, 100 e 120 m/h. The turbidity limits were 1 e 2 uT. The 60 cm high flexible fiber filter made of mercerized cotton and polyester only could work under the established turbidity limits until 80 m/h. The 100 cm high flexible fiber filter could work well in all the filtration rates. The flexible fiber filter made of polyester obtained longer filtration times, and lower pressure drop comparing to the flexible fiber filter made of mercerized cotton. Except for filtration rates of 40 e 60 m/h which mercerized cotton filter, in all the rates for both fiber filters, the lower coagulant dosage demonstrated better results - longer filtration times, and better quality in the effluent. This study indicated the potential of using flexible fiber filter made of mercerized cotton and polyester in water treatment. It is suggested advanced studies for this technology application in Brazil.

Over 30% of the population in developing countries is in need of access to safe drinking water. The 875 million cases of diarrhea and 4.6 million deaths that occur each year due to a lack of a safe water supply occur primarily in these countries. It is estimated that these countries will need over $150 billion to establish full drinking water supply system coverage. Conventional methods of drinking water disinfection, such as chemical treatment, heat pasteurization, and filtration, require facilities, materials, and fuel that may not be readily available or feasible to attain. An alternative treatment option is to utilize solar energy, which has been shown to inactivate pathogens through pasteurization and radiation effects. This research was conducted to determine the effectiveness of solar disinfection for the inactivation of E. coli. Turbidity, sample volume, exposure time, and bottle size were varied. Experiments were conducted by adding E. coli to water samples (phosphate buffered saline with or without added montmorillonite clay or pond water) in clear drinking water test bottles. The bottles were then placed in full, direct sunlight. Samples were taken at predetermined intervals and solar intensity, weather conditions, and water temperatures were recorded during each sampling session. The viable bacterial count was enumerated using the pour plate method to determine log inactivation achieved. Laboratory experiments were also conducted to determine the effects of heating only on the inactivation of E. coli. Sample volumes from 1 to 2 L and turbidity values ranging from <1 ntu to approximately 100 ntu did not significantly affect inactivation levels when samples were exposed to sunlight for at least 4 hours. In samples with 0 ntu turbidity, a minimum cumulative intensity of 20.8 J/cm2 of wavelengths below 400 nm was required for a 7-log inactivation of E. coli. In samples with up to 100 ntu, a maximum fluence of 99.8 J/cm2 was required. Temperatures up to 46.0°C did not significantly inactivate E. coli, therefore radiation or the synergistic effects of radiation and heating accounted for the inactivation in samples exposed to sunlight.

Slow sand filtration is a proven and sustainable technology for drinking water treatment in small communities. The process, however, is sensitive to lower water temperatures that can lead to decreased biological treatment, and high raw water turbidity levels that can lead to premature clogging of the filter and frequent cleaning requirements, resulting in increased risk of pathogen breakthrough. Multistage filtration, consisting of roughing filtration followed by slow sand filtration, can overcome these treatment limitations and provide a robust treatment alternative for surface water sources of variable water quality in northern climates, which typically experience water temperatures ranging down to 2&deg;C. Prior to this study, however, multistage filtration had yet to be systematically challenged in colder climates, including testing of its performance under increased hydraulic loadings and elevated influent turbidity together with cold water conditions. The primary goal of this research was to demonstrate the reliability of multistage filtration for small communities in northern climates with reference to the Ontario Safe Drinking Water Act. In this research, testing was conducted on two different pilot multistage filtration systems and fed with water from the Grand River, a municipally and agriculturally impacted river in Southern Ontario. One system featured pre-ozonation and post-granular activated carbon (GAC) stages, and shallower bed depths in the roughing filter and slow sand filter. The other system featured deeper bed depths in the roughing filter and slow sand filter, two parallel roughing filters of different design for comparison, and a second stage of slow sand filtration for increased robustness. Removal of turbidity, total coliforms, and fecal coliforms under a range of influent turbidities (1 to >100 NTU), water temperatures (~2 to 20&deg;C), and hydraulic loading rates (0. 2 to 0. 8 m/h) were investigated. In addition, the slow sand filters in each pilot system were challenged with high concentrations (~10⁶ oocyst/L) of inactivated <i>Cryptosporidium parvum</i> oocysts. The performance of both pilot multistage filtration systems was highly dependent on the biological maturity of the system and its hydraulic loading rate. In a less mature system operating in cold water conditions (<5&deg;C), effluent turbidity was mostly below 0. 5 NTU during periods of stable influent turbidity (no runoff events) and a hydraulic loading of 0. 4 m/h, however, runoff events of high influent turbidity (>50 NTU), increased hydraulic loadings (0. 6 m/h), and filter cleaning occasionally resulted in effluent turbidity above 1 NTU. Furthermore, in a less mature system operating during runoff events of high turbidity, reducing the hydraulic loading rate to 0. 2 m/h was important for achieving effluent turbidity below 1 NTU. However, in a more mature system operating in warm water conditions (19-22&deg;C), effluent turbidity was consistently below 0. 3 NTU at a hydraulic loading rate of 0. 4 m/h, and below 0. 5 NTU at 0. 8 m/h, despite numerous events of high influent turbidity (>25 NTU). It remains to be seen whether this performance could be sustained in colder water temperatures with a fully mature filter. Removal of coliform bacteria was occasionally incomplete in a less mature multistage system, whereas, in a more mature system operating in warm water conditions (>9&deg;C), removal was complete in all measurements. Furthermore, the average removal of <i>Cryptosporidium</i> was greater than 2. 5 logs in both systems (with hydraulic loading rates ranging from 0. 4 to 0. 8 m/h) and improved with increased filter maturity. Each individual stage of the multistage system was an important treatment barrier in the overall process of turbidity and pathogen removal. The roughing filter was not only important for protecting the slow sand filter from solids loading and increasing its run length, but was also a significant contributor to coliform removal when the system was less mature. Removal of turbidity was significantly improved when the roughing filter was more mature, suggesting that biological treatment was an important treatment mechanism in the roughing filter. Although pre-ozonation was used mainly for the removal of organic carbon and colour, it achieved complete removal of coliform bacteria and was also suspected to be important for enhanced removal of turbidity. The second slow sand filter in series provided additional robustness to the process by reducing effluent turbidity to below 1 NTU during cold water runoff events of high turbidity and increased hydraulic loadings (0. 6 m/h), while achieving effluent below 0. 3 NTU during normal periods of operation. It also provided additional removals of coliforms under challenging operating conditions, and contributed an additional average removal of <i>Cryptosporidium</i> of 0. 8 logs, which resulted in cumulative removal of 3. 7 logs, approximately 1 log greater than all the other challenge tests. Collectively, the entire multistage system performed well with water temperatures ranging down to 2&deg;C, limited filter maturity, elevated raw water turbidities, and increased hydraulic loading rates. Its ability to meet the current Ontario turbidity regulations and greater than 2 log removal of <i>Cryptosporidium</i> over a range of operating conditions, with little or no process adjustment, is a testament to the robustness and minimal maintenance requirements of the process, which are desirable attributes for small water systems that are often located in rural areas. While this research demonstrated the performance of multistage filtration using pilot scale testing, it is important to note that full-scale plants tend to produce significantly better results than pilot facilities, due to long term biological maturation of the system. Overall, multistage filtration is a sustainable and cost-effective technology that, through this research, appears to be a safe, reliable, and robust treatment alternative for small and non-municipal water systems in North America and the developing world. Further, based on its performance with challenging influent water quality and cold water conditions, multistage filtration holds particular promise for small communities in northern climates that are required to meet safe drinking water regulations, but are dependent on surface water sources of variable water quality and temperatures.

Slow sand filtration is a proven and sustainable technology for drinking water treatment in small communities. The process, however, is sensitive to lower water temperatures that can lead to decreased biological treatment, and high raw water turbidity levels that can lead to premature clogging of the filter and frequent cleaning requirements, resulting in increased risk of pathogen breakthrough. Multistage filtration, consisting of roughing filtration followed by slow sand filtration, can overcome these treatment limitations and provide a robust treatment alternative for surface water sources of variable water quality in northern climates, which typically experience water temperatures ranging down to 2&deg;C. Prior to this study, however, multistage filtration had yet to be systematically challenged in colder climates, including testing of its performance under increased hydraulic loadings and elevated influent turbidity together with cold water conditions. The primary goal of this research was to demonstrate the reliability of multistage filtration for small communities in northern climates with reference to the Ontario Safe Drinking Water Act. In this research, testing was conducted on two different pilot multistage filtration systems and fed with water from the Grand River, a municipally and agriculturally impacted river in Southern Ontario. One system featured pre-ozonation and post-granular activated carbon (GAC) stages, and shallower bed depths in the roughing filter and slow sand filter. The other system featured deeper bed depths in the roughing filter and slow sand filter, two parallel roughing filters of different design for comparison, and a second stage of slow sand filtration for increased robustness. Removal of turbidity, total coliforms, and fecal coliforms under a range of influent turbidities (1 to >100 NTU), water temperatures (~2 to 20&deg;C), and hydraulic loading rates (0. 2 to 0. 8 m/h) were investigated. In addition, the slow sand filters in each pilot system were challenged with high concentrations (~10⁶ oocyst/L) of inactivated <i>Cryptosporidium parvum</i> oocysts. The performance of both pilot multistage filtration systems was highly dependent on the biological maturity of the system and its hydraulic loading rate. In a less mature system operating in cold water conditions (<5&deg;C), effluent turbidity was mostly below 0. 5 NTU during periods of stable influent turbidity (no runoff events) and a hydraulic loading of 0. 4 m/h, however, runoff events of high influent turbidity (>50 NTU), increased hydraulic loadings (0. 6 m/h), and filter cleaning occasionally resulted in effluent turbidity above 1 NTU. Furthermore, in a less mature system operating during runoff events of high turbidity, reducing the hydraulic loading rate to 0. 2 m/h was important for achieving effluent turbidity below 1 NTU. However, in a more mature system operating in warm water conditions (19-22&deg;C), effluent turbidity was consistently below 0. 3 NTU at a hydraulic loading rate of 0. 4 m/h, and below 0. 5 NTU at 0. 8 m/h, despite numerous events of high influent turbidity (>25 NTU). It remains to be seen whether this performance could be sustained in colder water temperatures with a fully mature filter. Removal of coliform bacteria was occasionally incomplete in a less mature multistage system, whereas, in a more mature system operating in warm water conditions (>9&deg;C), removal was complete in all measurements. Furthermore, the average removal of <i>Cryptosporidium</i> was greater than 2. 5 logs in both systems (with hydraulic loading rates ranging from 0. 4 to 0. 8 m/h) and improved with increased filter maturity. Each individual stage of the multistage system was an important treatment barrier in the overall process of turbidity and pathogen removal. The roughing filter was not only important for protecting the slow sand filter from solids loading and increasing its run length, but was also a significant contributor to coliform removal when the system was less mature. Removal of turbidity was significantly improved when the roughing filter was more mature, suggesting that biological treatment was an important treatment mechanism in the roughing filter. Although pre-ozonation was used mainly for the removal of organic carbon and colour, it achieved complete removal of coliform bacteria and was also suspected to be important for enhanced removal of turbidity. The second slow sand filter in series provided additional robustness to the process by reducing effluent turbidity to below 1 NTU during cold water runoff events of high turbidity and increased hydraulic loadings (0. 6 m/h), while achieving effluent below 0. 3 NTU during normal periods of operation. It also provided additional removals of coliforms under challenging operating conditions, and contributed an additional average removal of <i>Cryptosporidium</i> of 0. 8 logs, which resulted in cumulative removal of 3. 7 logs, approximately 1 log greater than all the other challenge tests. Collectively, the entire multistage system performed well with water temperatures ranging down to 2&deg;C, limited filter maturity, elevated raw water turbidities, and increased hydraulic loading rates. Its ability to meet the current Ontario turbidity regulations and greater than 2 log removal of <i>Cryptosporidium</i> over a range of operating conditions, with little or no process adjustment, is a testament to the robustness and minimal maintenance requirements of the process, which are desirable attributes for small water systems that are often located in rural areas. While this research demonstrated the performance of multistage filtration using pilot scale testing, it is important to note that full-scale plants tend to produce significantly better results than pilot facilities, due to long term biological maturation of the system. Overall, multistage filtration is a sustainable and cost-effective technology that, through this research, appears to be a safe, reliable, and robust treatment alternative for small and non-municipal water systems in North America and the developing world. Further, based on its performance with challenging influent water quality and cold water conditions, multistage filtration holds particular promise for small communities in northern climates that are required to meet safe drinking water regulations, but are dependent on surface water sources of variable water quality and temperatures.

Os filtros de fibras flexíveis são módulos de filtração direta cujo leito filtrante é formado por micro fibras de poliamida, permitindo altas eficiências de remoção de sólidos suspensos, e aplicação de altas taxas de filtração. O presente estudo avaliou tal configuração de filtro utilizando fibras de algodão mercerizado e poliéster na forma de fios. Foram realizados testes de resistência dos fios a meios com características químicas distintas - alcalino, ácido e com cloro residual. Foi realizada caracterização das fibras estudadas através de Microscopia Óptica e Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura. Foram construídos 4 filtros com diâmetro interno de 28 mm, e porosidade 67% (algodão), e 75% (poliéster), sendo 2 filtros constituídos de fibras de algodão mercerizado - comprimento de leito 60 e 100 cm; e 2 filtros constituídos de fibras de poliéster - comprimento de leito 60 e 100 cm. Foi utilizada para alimentação dos filtros água sintética de turbidez 7,7 ± 0,3 uT, e cor aparente 97 ± 5,0 uC, e realizada coagulação in-line com 22,5mg/L e 15 mg/L (este último valor somente para os filtros de 100 cm) de sulfato de alumínio. Foram avaliadas taxas de filtração de 40, 60, 80, 100 e 120 m/h. Os limites de turbidez estabelecidos para o filtrado foram de 1 e 2 uT. Os filtros de fibras flexíveis de algodão mercerizado e poliéster de leito 60 cm só conseguiram atingir os limites de turbidez até taxa de 80 m/h. Os filtros de leito 100 cm atingiram os limites satisfatoriamente em todas as taxas de filtração. Os filtros de poliéster obtiveram carreiras de filtração mais longas do que as obtidas pelos filtros de algodão, além de apresentarem perdas de carga menores. Exceto para taxa 40 e 60 m/h para o filtro de algodão mercerizado, todas as outras taxas em ambos os filtros obtiveram desempenhos melhores (carreiras de filtração longas, e filtrado de melhor qualidade) com dosagem menor de coagulante. Esse estudo mostrou potencial no uso das fibras de algodão mercerizado e poliéster nos filtros de fibras flexíveis aplicados em tratamento de água para abastecimento. Sugere-se estudos avançados para aplicação no Brasil de tal tecnologia. / The flexible fiber filters are direct filtration modules which filter media is made of polyamide micro fibers, obtaining high solids removal efficiency, and high filtration rates. This study evaluated the performance of the filter using mercerized cotton and polyester fibers. Tests of fibers resistance due to alkaline, acid and chlorinated environments were realized at the present research. The fibers were also analyzed by means of Optic and Scanning Electronic Microscopy. Four field-scale filters with an internal diameter of 28mm, porosity of 67% (cotton), and 75% (polyester) were installed; two of them made of mercerized cotton fiber- high of 60 and 100 cm; and two made of polyester fiber - high of 60 and 100 cm. A synthetic water was used as influent - turbidity 7,7 ± 0,3 uT, and color 97 ± 5,0 uC. In-line coagulation was used with 22,5 mg/L and 15 mg/L (this last value was only applied on 100cm length filters) of aluminium sulfate. The filtration rates studied were 40, 60, 80, 100 e 120 m/h. The turbidity limits were 1 e 2 uT. The 60 cm high flexible fiber filter made of mercerized cotton and polyester only could work under the established turbidity limits until 80 m/h. The 100 cm high flexible fiber filter could work well in all the filtration rates. The flexible fiber filter made of polyester obtained longer filtration times, and lower pressure drop comparing to the flexible fiber filter made of mercerized cotton. Except for filtration rates of 40 e 60 m/h which mercerized cotton filter, in all the rates for both fiber filters, the lower coagulant dosage demonstrated better results - longer filtration times, and better quality in the effluent. This study indicated the potential of using flexible fiber filter made of mercerized cotton and polyester in water treatment. It is suggested advanced studies for this technology application in Brazil.