Despite the plethora of research on migration, little is known about behaviours and experiences of older working age migrants. This thesis focuses on Polish migrants aged 45-65, who have arrived in the UK since 2004 looking for work and better opportunities. The purpose of the study is to explore links between age and migration by investigating older migrants who are still economically active. Thirty five interviews were carried out across the UK using an oral history qualitative approach. These migrants were particularly affected by redundancy during the transitional period from socialism to capitalism in Poland; they then found it almost impossible to find other work because of their age. The decision to migrate may have been influenced by an early exposure to Western influences; however, it was the impact of unemployment and debt that led to a re-evaluation of their lives. Although they may be at different family stages, these older migrants' shared background and perception of their lack of value has shaped their migration experience. They represent parents, grandparents, sons, daughters, married couples, widows and single persons; this age group gives a more complete and nuanced picture of family life and relationships. The emotional costs are high when families are separated through migration, especially when elderly parents are involved. Despite the wide age range, family experiences are often very similar, with preferences for staying at home and watching Polish television. However, the opportunity of employment in the UK has given them an economic and social value no longer available to them in their homeland. As so much of their life course has been invested in Poland, many see no need to learn English; it is not a priority as they have virtual social interactions with family and friends in Poland and continue to inhabit a Polish-speaking world. This age group are also more likely to be pioneer migrants, accessing new destinations.

Lietuvai įstojus į Europos Sąjungą prasidėjo masinė darbo jėgos emigracija. Įvertinęs emigracijos mastą, Lietuvos Respublikos Seimas pripažino, kad emigracija yra didžiausia nekarinė grėsmė Lietuvai. Ypač jaučiamos demografinės pasekmės - kiekvienais metais išvyksta labai daug žmonių, o tai gali ženkliai atsiliepti ekonominiam šalies augimui. Remiantis statistiniais duomenimis, Lietuva viena pirmaujančių pagal emigracijos mąstą šalių Europoje. Daugiausiai išvyksta jauni žmonės, o pagrindinėmis išvykimo priežastimis laikytinas darbo vietų stygius bei nedideli atlyginimai. Lietuvoje dėmesys su emigracija susijusiems klausimams viešoje erdvėje išaugo apie 2005 - 2006 m. Tai paskatino valstybę imtis nuoseklesnio migracijos politikos formavimo ir 2006 m. pabaigoje emigracijos problema pateko į politinę darbotvarkę. Lietuvos viešoji politika migrantų atžvilgiu jau praėjo keletą etapų, tačiau tiesioginė valstybės politikos įtaka išvykusiųjų grįžimui buvo labai maža. Kokybinio tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad sėkmingos politikos pagrindas yra sistemingas šalies vidaus problemų sprendimas, o būtent išvykusiesiems skirtos programos turi atlikti daugiau pagalbinę funkciją. Jiems turi būti sudaromos galimybės gauti išsamią informaciją bei kompetentingą pagalbą. Taip pat turi būti atsižvelgiama į emigrantams itin svarbių klausimų sprendimą. / After Lithuania joined European Union, emigration became a big problem in the country. Emigration is considered to be the most important non-military threat to Lithuania. It has considerable negative influence on demography, also it may have an impact for long term growth. Statistics shows that Lithuanians one of most migratory peoples in Europe. And in fact, mass emigration is nothing new in the country where waves of migrants have been leaving for centuries. Mostly common emigrants are young people. Unemployment and wage differentials between Lithuania and destination countries are the main pushing factors. Most emigrants leave Lithuania due to the lack of jobs and low salaries. Because of this, people don’t feel the motivation to work in Lithuania and decide to emigrate in order to get financial independence. The qualitative research results have revealed that the foundation for successful politics is to systematically solve internal problems, while the programs for those abroad should perform a helping function only, by providing the people with a thorough information and competent help. The most important emigrants’ problems should also be addressed.

The research has been designed to study the effects of the rapid urbanization in and around the Roodepoort, targeting mainly the sprawling informal settlements across the area and the existing townships of Dobsonville, Doornkop (Snakepark) and Kagiso. The researcher, who is a practising pastor in the area, had been challenged by a number of issues related to the process of urbanization. The CODESA process that culminated with the elections of 1994 and the subsequent change of government had raised very high hopes among the majority of South Africans who lived in poverty and foreigners, in their own land, for decades. The turnover at the elections, inspired by leaders such as Bishop Desmond Tutu, was a clear indication that an ordinary South African was yearning for a better life. This was a new beginning as many people had been restricted by the apartheid laws to work and live where they wanted. The repeal of all the apartheid laws saw the beginning of influx from the rural homelands to the cities. The hope that job opportunities were available near the cities was the main force of attraction. This unplanned process resulted in creation of massive informal settlements as there were no houses to cater for the massive movement. This process is called rapid urbanization. Not very long, the reality of the past indicated that there were no major changes with the new government. The economy still remained in the hands of few individuals, majority of whom still being white, as the new government came through negotiations and not complete take over (Coup D’état.) Few blacks managed to shoot up the economy ladder through processes such as BEE and the GEAR leaving the majority of people in abject poverty. The great trek did not only happen within the borders of the country, millions of people from the African, Asian and East European countries also moved into South Africa to try their luck at the new South African economy. Highly qualified professionals left their struggling countries to seek better life in South Africa. This category came legally through the recruitment processes but the larger contingency came illegally into the country. They took the advantage of lack of internationally recognised immigration instruments to regulate movement in and out of the country. This process saw the country soaring with illegal economic migrants as well as genuine refugees and asylum seekers. The rapid urbanization process brought about the following challenges: <ul><li> Culture shock </li><li> Declining family structures/ life and Social problems </li><li> Drug trafficking </li><li> Education </li><li> Exploitation of foreigners </li><li> Exploitation of informal settlement dwellers and “Shack farming” </li><li> Human trafficking. </li><li> Inadequate housing and homelessness</li><li> Institutional harassment and unfair discrimination </li><li> Lack of Employment </li><li> Poverty in urban areas</li><li> Refugees and economic migrants </li><li> Social benefit exclusion </li><li> Stigmatization on HIV and AIDS, Crime, including serious crimes</li><li> Xenophobia </li> </ul> The challenges, as tabled above, brought about a series conflicts between the South African internal migrants and the foreigners which culminated into a bitter xenophobic outburst of 2008. The main reason for the conflict was that South Africans felt that jobs were being taken away by foreigners and also that the government was neglecting service provision to the local community in favour of foreigners. A number of service delivery protests have become a common sight, particularly in the informal settlements. Lack of basic facilities and the irregular allocations of the RDP Houses, crime and poverty have waned the patience of residences of informal settlements. The resent protests in Zandspruit, Rietfontein and Diepsloot informal settlements north west of Johannesburg are some of the concrete examples. The situation could not be ignored by the Church and this research was an attempt to understand the extent of the problem in order to find a way to improve ministry to the affected communities. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Practical Theology / unrestricted

PhD / Department of Development Studies