The competitive advantage of velvet beans as an economic agricultural commodity. In the past 40 years, although food insecurity, poverty and environmental degradation persist, worldwide farmers have made considerable progress in increasing per capita food production whilst better understanding natural-resource management. Literature indicates that — in the decades to come — food demand will both grow and change for three reasons, namely increased numbers of people, increased income (people will have more purchasing power), and increased urbanisation (people will be more likely to adopt new diets containing animal protein and cereal). The world population is expected to increase to 8,9 billion by 2050, with 84% in the developing countries. Food insecurity and malnutrition are expected to persist despite progress on average per capita consumption of food. As a complex system, and despite challenges, agriculture must produce simultaneously unprecedented abundance of food and unparalleled social concerns. As a business, agriculture requires high capital investments in land, facilities and production inputs; most often producing commodities of generally low unit value with thin profit margins, thereby forcing producers to strive for efficiency in all aspects of production. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that farmers should understand sustainable agriculture; where a more sustainable food-production system seeks to make the best use of nature’s goods and services whilst not being harmful to the environment. Sustainable agriculture should maximise the productivity of the land; should focus on locally adapted resource-conserving technologies which assist whole system redesign and large-scale adoption; and should aim to minimise the use of harmful non-renewable and fossil-fuel derived inputs. Fertilisers have not replaced the function of organic matter and other management practices; but soil erosion and toxic waste rather did increase disproportionately along with increased agricultural production. This has led to a progressive decline in crop and land productivity as a result of soil degradation, water contamination, increasing problems of weed infestation, pests and diseases. Often the apparent absence of sustainable productive agricultural systems within the scope of commercial farmers is not because of the lack in technology or low yield potential of traditional varieties, but rather on account of the limited knowledge or lack of awareness on the part of farmers about sustainable production practices which function in harmony with their farming environment. As one of the keys to success the velvet bean — which can grow almost everywhere — is an example of the introduction of a simple regenerative component into a farming system, as well as boosting the capacity of a farmer for local adaptation of the technology. Integrating the natural processes of nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation and introducing natural enemies of pests into food production processes can contribute to minimising environmental damage and/or health of the farmer and the consumer. Using the knowledge and skills of farmers helps to improve their self-reliance and to solve a common management problem, such as social- and human-capital management. The velvet bean is seen as an answer to the agricultural problem of low nutrient supply to the staple crop of maize. The bean creates ground cover, regenerates, fertilises the soil, controls weeds and adds organic matter and nutrients. In arid South Africa the crop is one of the strongest defences of the farmer against the harmful effects of El Niño — with the bean protecting the soil, holding water and fertilising the land with its leaves. With the velvet bean farmers can grow their own organic and inexpensive fertilisers. Commercial fertilisers are becoming more and more expensive and their benefit is decreasing because of a degrading soil resource base. Furthermore, the rise in production costs makes total reliance on inorganic fertilisers more uneconomical for most growers in the agricultural sector; making it imperative for researchers to come up with options which increase the efficient use of fertiliser, and also to identify other nutrient sources — such as legumes — that are not capital intensive. The velvet-bean technique is known to researchers and farmers worldwide for a considerable amount of time, but not in our country. As the technique becomes better known to South African farmers, it can be considered in a broader sense as a modern way to add nitrogen to the soil; benefitting, amongst others, the subsequent crop. The velvet-bean approach has a window of opportunity which can lead to higher yields in crop production, decline in labour costs, crop diversification, as well as agro-processing — all resulting in improved food security for South Africa. Adopting the velvet bean into a production system can benefit a farmer, by achieving maize yields of 3 t/ha–4 t/ha (similar to yields normally obtained with recommended levels of fertilisation at 130 kg N/ha) without applied nitrogen fertiliser or input for weeding. Velvet beans, as an intercrop, can provide more than 100 kg N/ha to the following crop. However, literature shows a declining trend over time for all systems, which suggests that additional external inputs (probably P and K fertiliser) are required to achieve full sustainability. The adoption of the velvet bean in the South African maize industry would result in import savings of about 158 million tons of urea or about R591 billion/year. Information presented in this mini-dissertation is considered to be the current state of knowledge on establishing, managing, and utilising the velvet bean as a legume in South Africa’s commodity market; with the belief that it will expand the use of the bean, and will enhance the benefits from its use. / MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The competitive advantage of velvet beans as an economic agricultural commodity. In the past 40 years, although food insecurity, poverty and environmental degradation persist, worldwide farmers have made considerable progress in increasing per capita food production whilst better understanding natural-resource management. Literature indicates that — in the decades to come — food demand will both grow and change for three reasons, namely increased numbers of people, increased income (people will have more purchasing power), and increased urbanisation (people will be more likely to adopt new diets containing animal protein and cereal). The world population is expected to increase to 8,9 billion by 2050, with 84% in the developing countries. Food insecurity and malnutrition are expected to persist despite progress on average per capita consumption of food. As a complex system, and despite challenges, agriculture must produce simultaneously unprecedented abundance of food and unparalleled social concerns. As a business, agriculture requires high capital investments in land, facilities and production inputs; most often producing commodities of generally low unit value with thin profit margins, thereby forcing producers to strive for efficiency in all aspects of production. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that farmers should understand sustainable agriculture; where a more sustainable food-production system seeks to make the best use of nature’s goods and services whilst not being harmful to the environment. Sustainable agriculture should maximise the productivity of the land; should focus on locally adapted resource-conserving technologies which assist whole system redesign and large-scale adoption; and should aim to minimise the use of harmful non-renewable and fossil-fuel derived inputs. Fertilisers have not replaced the function of organic matter and other management practices; but soil erosion and toxic waste rather did increase disproportionately along with increased agricultural production. This has led to a progressive decline in crop and land productivity as a result of soil degradation, water contamination, increasing problems of weed infestation, pests and diseases. Often the apparent absence of sustainable productive agricultural systems within the scope of commercial farmers is not because of the lack in technology or low yield potential of traditional varieties, but rather on account of the limited knowledge or lack of awareness on the part of farmers about sustainable production practices which function in harmony with their farming environment. As one of the keys to success the velvet bean — which can grow almost everywhere — is an example of the introduction of a simple regenerative component into a farming system, as well as boosting the capacity of a farmer for local adaptation of the technology. Integrating the natural processes of nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation and introducing natural enemies of pests into food production processes can contribute to minimising environmental damage and/or health of the farmer and the consumer. Using the knowledge and skills of farmers helps to improve their self-reliance and to solve a common management problem, such as social- and human-capital management. The velvet bean is seen as an answer to the agricultural problem of low nutrient supply to the staple crop of maize. The bean creates ground cover, regenerates, fertilises the soil, controls weeds and adds organic matter and nutrients. In arid South Africa the crop is one of the strongest defences of the farmer against the harmful effects of El Niño — with the bean protecting the soil, holding water and fertilising the land with its leaves. With the velvet bean farmers can grow their own organic and inexpensive fertilisers. Commercial fertilisers are becoming more and more expensive and their benefit is decreasing because of a degrading soil resource base. Furthermore, the rise in production costs makes total reliance on inorganic fertilisers more uneconomical for most growers in the agricultural sector; making it imperative for researchers to come up with options which increase the efficient use of fertiliser, and also to identify other nutrient sources — such as legumes — that are not capital intensive. The velvet-bean technique is known to researchers and farmers worldwide for a considerable amount of time, but not in our country. As the technique becomes better known to South African farmers, it can be considered in a broader sense as a modern way to add nitrogen to the soil; benefitting, amongst others, the subsequent crop. The velvet-bean approach has a window of opportunity which can lead to higher yields in crop production, decline in labour costs, crop diversification, as well as agro-processing — all resulting in improved food security for South Africa. Adopting the velvet bean into a production system can benefit a farmer, by achieving maize yields of 3 t/ha–4 t/ha (similar to yields normally obtained with recommended levels of fertilisation at 130 kg N/ha) without applied nitrogen fertiliser or input for weeding. Velvet beans, as an intercrop, can provide more than 100 kg N/ha to the following crop. However, literature shows a declining trend over time for all systems, which suggests that additional external inputs (probably P and K fertiliser) are required to achieve full sustainability. The adoption of the velvet bean in the South African maize industry would result in import savings of about 158 million tons of urea or about R591 billion/year. Information presented in this mini-dissertation is considered to be the current state of knowledge on establishing, managing, and utilising the velvet bean as a legume in South Africa’s commodity market; with the belief that it will expand the use of the bean, and will enhance the benefits from its use. / MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

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Analysis of merger regulation and economical criteria Abstract: The United States of America has been the cradle of merger regulation. During the last century, the application of rules connected with merger assessment was evolving in connection with the then-prevalent economic schools (for example the University of Chicago, etc.) and in connection with the amount of regulation of American economy during certain periods. The Courts make decisions whether or not a merger leads or does not to a significant lessening of competition, whereas the petitioners can be persons affected by relevant merger, states or federal antitrust Agencies (FTC or DOJ). The notifications of the merging parties are being filed with the above Federal Antitrust Agencies according to the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act. There are two possible anticompetitive effects of mergers - unilateral effects and coordinated effects. Both effects complement each other. These effects can be prevented by efficiency gains of the merged entity. The merger assessment in the European Union or the Czech Republic is relatively new in comparison with the US. In contrast to the US, the concentrations in the EU and the Czech Republic are cleared by the Antitrust Agencies (namely the European Commission or Czech Competition Office). The decisions...

A preocupação com os problemas ambientais aparece como um elemento importante a respeito do crescimento material econômico e da qualidade de vida. Com a ameça da escassez dos recursos naturais, vêm-se buscando alternativas para que o desenvolvimento sócio-econômico seja sustentável. Como o impacto do setor agroindustrial na deterioração ambiental é significativo, é fundamental que sejam consideradas as externalidades negativas provocadas pelo processo produtivo no meio ambiente e a necessidade de internalização econômica desses efeitos. A introdução do capital natural na análise econômica faz-se necessárias já que os custos da degradação ambiental e do consumo de recursos naturais não têm sido adicionados aos processos produtivos, avaliando-se os fluxos de estoques naturais e contribuindo para a definição de uma escala sustentável da economia. Quando estas organizações industriais abrangem uma grande área produtiva do país, como é o caso do complexo sucroalcooleiro, os problemas ocasionados pela queima do canavial se tornam fundamentais. Dessa forma, foi realizado um estudo do setor sucroalcooleiro usando a cana cortada crua, analisando e quantificando as diversas utilizações da palha e do bagaço e os efeitos ambientais, evitando-se os impactos provocados pela queima de cana-de-açúcar no meio ambiente e uma possível viabilidade econômica utilizando o método de valoração econômica. / Concern about environmental problems turns up as an important element regarding material and economical growth and life quality. Due natural resources shortage, alternatives have been quested for socioeconomic development is sustainable. Impact by agro-industrial sector in environmental hazarding is significant, so it is fundamental negative externalities caused by productive process in environment are considered, as well as need of economical internalization of those effects. Natural capital introduction in economical analysis is necessary once environmental degradation costs and natural resources consumption have not been added in to productive processes, being evaluated natural stocks flows and contributing for a sustainable scale deftnition of economy. When these industrial organizations comprise a great productive area of country, for example alcohol industry assemblage case, problems caused by sugar-cane plantation burning become fundamental. Therefore, a study of alcohol industry sector was accomplished using raw cane, analyzing and quantifying straw and pulp several uses, and environmental effects, being avoided impacts caused by sugar-cane burning at environment and a possible economical viability using economical valuation method.

<p>This project considers an evaluation of a potential site for a small hydropower plant located in the BioBio north irrigation system, Chile. The purpose was to analyze the potential and constraints in harnessing the energy of an existing infrastructure of irrigation canals for electrical production. The site was analyzed technically, economically and managerially. Before this project nothing was done and therefore the investigations are a main part of the project. A preliminary design for the plant was proposed and the project was named the Minicentral Quillaileo-Mininco.</p><p>Investigations showed a flow variation of 1.62-2.2 m³ per second and a gross head of 44.3 meters. Evaluation gave a possible capacity of 840 kW producing 5 800 MWh annually. Appropriate electromechanical equipment is a Francis turbine with a diameter of 0.5 meter directly coupled to a 1000 rpm synchronous generator. The penstock recommended is a DN 1200 Flowtite GRP. The station is to be fully automatic and connected to the national grid.</p><p>The revenue is based on analysis of the past three year’s electrical market. The costs are based on budget proposals, statistical values and local comparisons. The economical analysis, based on a discount rate of 12% and life span of 35 years, gives a positive cash flow within eight years and a simple payback period of 5 years. The project will have a NPV value of 444 900 USD, IRR 14.70% and B/C of 1.2. Cost per kW will be 2 980 USD. The project is recommended to be further developed.</p>

This paper presents investigations on integration of Chilean Diaspora in Sweden. Largegroups of Chilean refugees arriving in the 1970s and 1980s in multiple waves. Sweden wasknown as a country with a very generous refugee policy allowing numerous entries to stay.Reflections are made on the refugees in the different waves, the legal view on refugee statusand the division into political and economical refugees. Interviews with Chileans how theyintegrated are included. The questions analysed are if there is any differences in integrationprocess between first and second wave and what the impact was of the first wave beingpolitical and second wave economical refugees. The paper includes a short summary of thehistorical events leading to the flow of refugees, theories behind integration and why languageand identity is important factors in the integration process. The political refugees in the firstwave had a significant influence on the awareness among the Swedish population on thesituation for Chileans after the military coup.

Environmental Diagnosis of Process Plants by Life Cycle TechniquesHaydée A. Yrigoyen GonzálezEl objetivo de la investigación es desarrollar una herramienta que relacione aspectos desimulación, evaluación ambiental y análisis de sensibilidad. Para lo cual se estableció unametodología que consta de cinco niveles: Simulación de proceso, Inventario, evaluación deimpactos ambientales, análisis económico y análisis de sensibilidad.La metodología describe las variables relacionadas con el proceso, así como losimpactos asociados a cada una de sus etapas y la viabilidad económica del proceso, eidentifica las etapas de proceso con el mayor impacto ambiental (mediante el análisis desensibilidad).Para la simulación de procesos se empleó el simulador ASPEN Hysys®. El inventario,la evaluación de impactos y el análisis económico se lleva a cabo en hojas de cálculo de formaautomática.La obtención del inventario de efectos ambientales y la evaluación de loscorrespondientes impactos se realizan siguiendo la metodología de ciclo de vida, por lo que seconsideran las cargas ambientales asociadas a las materias primas, la generación deelectricidad y utilidades. Para obtener el inventario se construyó una base de datos quecontiene la información ambiental asociada a varios procesos industriales que se relacionanindirectamente al proceso bajo estudio. Similarmente, se incluyó una base de datos con losfactores de caracterización de las categorías de impacto más importantes.La validación de la metodología y de la herramienta desarrollada se ha llevado a cabomediante tres procesos industriales: polietileno de baja densidad (LDPE), óxido de etileno (EO)y biodiesel. Para cada proceso se han evaluado diferentes configuraciones para poderdeterminar cual de ellas es la mejor opción desde el punto de vista ambiental y económico.En el caso del LDPE, el cambio de configuración se ha enfocado en el origen de laelectricidad, la cual puede ser proveniente de la Red Nacional Española o de una unidad decogeneración. Los resultados indican que la mejor configuración corresponde al proceso queemplea electricidad proveniente de la unidad de cogeneración, puesto que se obtiene vaporcomo sub-producto y se evitan las emisiones asociadas a la generación de electricidad, lo quese refleja en una importante reducción de los impactos ambientales asociados.En el segundo proceso analizado, referente a la producción de oxido de etileno, se hanevaluado cuatro configuraciones, empleando aire u oxígeno como materia prima y electricidadde la Red Española o produciéndola mediante cogeneración. En relación al origen de laelectricidad, al emplear la cogeneración, el comportamiento ambiental del proceso mejoraconsiderablemente. En cuanto a la importancia de la materia prima empleada, al utilizaroxígeno se obtiene un mejor rendimiento en la etapa de reacción, con lo cual se compensa loscostes asociados a la materia prima con la productividad del proceso.Finalmente, se ha llevado a cabo la evaluación del proceso de producción de biodiesel,se comparó el comportamiento ambiental del proceso empleando un catalizador ácido y uncatalizador básico. En el proceso ácido se generan menores impactos ambientales. De formasimilar, ésta configuración tiene un mejor perfil económico ya que los costes asociados a laproducción son menores y no se requiere ninguna unidad de pretratamiento (necesaria en elproceso alcalino).Mediante la herramienta desarrollada, la información inicial puede modificarse encualquier momento con el fin de obtener los valores correspondientes a nuevas condiciones.Uno de los aspectos más importantes es el que la herramienta se adapta fácilmente con elmínimo de variaciones. Las bases de datos que se incluyen en las hojas de cálculo pueden seractualizadas por el usuario o ajustarse a las necesidades específicas de cada proceso. Todo elanálisis se lleva a cabo de forma automática, una vez introducida la información inicial delproceso e información económica.Environmental Diagnosis of Process Plants by Life Cycle TechniquesHaydée A. Yrigoyen GonzálezThe objective of this work is to develop a tool that integrates simulation, environmentalassessment and sensitivity analysis aspects. To support this tool, a methodology consisting offive levels was established. These are: process simulation, Inventory, environmental impactsassessment, economic analysis and sensitivity analysis.The developed methodology describes the variables related to the process, as well asthe impacts associated to each stages, the economic viability of the process, and the processstages with the highest environmental impact (by means of the sensitivity analysis).ASPEN Hysys® is the chosen software for the simulation of processes. The inventory,impact assessment and the economic analysis are automatically obtained in spreadsheets, bymeans of macros execution.The inventory and the impacts assessment are performed following the Life Cyclemethodology. Therefore, the environmental loads of the raw materials, electricity generation andutilities are considered. In order to generate the inventory, a data base was constructed; itcontains the environmental information associated to industrial processes that are indirectlyrelated to the process under study. Similarly, a data base with the characterization factors of themost important impact categories was included in the tool.The validation of the methodology and the developed tool has been accomplished bytheir application to three industrial processes: low density polyethylene (LDPE), ethylene oxide(EO) and biodiesel production. Different configurations have been evaluated for each process todetermine the best option from the environmental and economic point of view.For the LDPE process, the configuration change has focused in the origin of theelectricity, which can be supplied by the Spanish National Network or a cogeneration unit.Based on our results, the best configuration corresponds to the process employing electricity bycogeneration, since steam is obtained as by-product and the emissions associated to theelectricity generation are eliminated. These facts are reflected in an important reduction of theoverall impacts associated to this process.In the second analyzed process, referring to the production of ethylene oxide, fourconfigurations have been evaluated: using air or oxygen as raw material and electricity from theSpanish Network or produced by cogeneration. Related to the origin of the electricity, usingcogeneration, a better environmental profile is obtained. On the other hand, the oxygen as rawmaterial is better than air due to the best yield of ethylene oxide in the reaction stage. Due tothe better selectivity of the oxygen in the reaction, the costs of O2 as raw material arecompensated by high production.Finally, the process evaluation of the biodiesel production has been carried out. In thiscase, an acid and a basic catalyst were compared. The best configuration corresponds to theprocess using an acid catalyst. In the acid process lower environmental impacts are generated.Furthermore, this configuration has a better economical profile since the costs associated to theproduction are smaller and a pre-treatment unit is not required, as in the alkaline process.The initial information can be modified at any time to obtain the profile associated to thenew conditions by means of the developed tool. Also, the tool can be adapted to any process inan easy way. The included database can be updated or adjusted by the user at any time topersonalize them to the specific necessities of each process. Once the initial information isintroduced, the analysis is executed automatically.The developed tool is able to make the simulation, its environmental diagnosis,economic evaluation and the sensitivity analysis of any industrial process, introducing the initialoperation conditions.

This project considers an evaluation of a potential site for a small hydropower plant located in the BioBio north irrigation system, Chile. The purpose was to analyze the potential and constraints in harnessing the energy of an existing infrastructure of irrigation canals for electrical production. The site was analyzed technically, economically and managerially. Before this project nothing was done and therefore the investigations are a main part of the project. A preliminary design for the plant was proposed and the project was named the Minicentral Quillaileo-Mininco. Investigations showed a flow variation of 1.62-2.2 m3 per second and a gross head of 44.3 meters. Evaluation gave a possible capacity of 840 kW producing 5 800 MWh annually. Appropriate electromechanical equipment is a Francis turbine with a diameter of 0.5 meter directly coupled to a 1000 rpm synchronous generator. The penstock recommended is a DN 1200 Flowtite GRP. The station is to be fully automatic and connected to the national grid. The revenue is based on analysis of the past three year’s electrical market. The costs are based on budget proposals, statistical values and local comparisons. The economical analysis, based on a discount rate of 12% and life span of 35 years, gives a positive cash flow within eight years and a simple payback period of 5 years. The project will have a NPV value of 444 900 USD, IRR 14.70% and B/C of 1.2. Cost per kW will be 2 980 USD. The project is recommended to be further developed.

The aim of the study was to examine what the economic and touristic impacts of the sports event - UEFA EURO 2012 - will have on Polish regions. The essay was limited to some specific regions in Poland. Those regions were Gniewino, Malbork, Kalisz, Legionowo, Pommerian Province, Cracow, Olsztyn and Zamosc. The Football Championships that will be held in 2012 are dependent of the big amount of football fans that will came and spend their money in Polish regions. Thanks to the increased consumption this creates demand for local services and products. The generator of spending is the tourism multiplier that is the main link to the touristic expenditure.The multiplier is a catalyst of the region that creates jobs, growing yield, promotion of the region and improvement of its infrastructure and leisure facilities. This is considered as an advantage from an economical and touristic point of view. The economical and tourstic benefits are different for every mentioned region in the study because of their location and link to the UEFA EURO 2012. This study shows only how the different eight regions prepare for the UEFA EURO 2012 and what they think that the negative and positive economical and touristic impacts will gain them. The study gives only a short brief of the football event of what can happen.