Orientador: Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho / Resumo: As águas residuárias de suinocultura (ARS) são consideradas um grande problema de cunho ambiental. Porém o aguapé (Eichhornia crassipes) parece ter uma capacidade de adaptação em meios com alta concentração da ARS, o que pode ser interessante para diminuir os nutrientes e as cargas orgânicas das ARS, cujo destino são mananciais ou até mesmo lagoas conhecidas como sumidouros, causando problemas ambientais, como a eutrofização. Neste sentido, objetivou-se analisar o polimento de água residuária de suinocultura em diferentes concentrações, por meio do cultivo de aguapé, determinou-se a concentração de elementos químicos presentes na ARS, assim como o acúmulo destes elementos na matéria seca e produção desta macrófita. O experimento foi conduzido na área experimental da ETEC (Colégio Agrícola) de Presidente Prudente - SP. Utilizou-se o delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado, com parcelas subdivididas e cinco repetições. As parcelas constituíram de três tratamentos (água potável “Testemunha”, diluição de 50% ARS e 100% ARS) e subparcelas com cinco períodos de coleta da ARS para análise química [0 (caracterização), 7, 14, 21 e 28 dias], sendo a coleta das plantas de aguapé realizada aos 28 dias, junto a última coleta da ARS. O cultivo de aguapé em 100% de ARS proporcionou maior absorção de nutrientes, desenvolvimento e acúmulo de matéria seca desta macrófita aquática, reduzindo gradativamente conforme vai diminuindo a concentração da ARS. Recomenda-se o cultivo do aguap... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Swine wastewater (SWW) is considered to be a major environmental problem, but water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) seems to have a capacity for adaptation in environments with high concentration of the same, which may be interesting to reduce nutrients and loads organic matter of this material, the destination of which are fountains or even ponds known as sinks, causing environmental problems such as eutrophication. In this sense, the aim of this study was to analyze the polishing SWW in different concentrations, by the E. crassipes crop, was determined the concentration of chemical elements present in the SWW, as well as the accumulation of these elements in the dry matter and production of this macrophyte. The experiment was conducted in the experimental area of the ETEC (Agricultural College) of Presidente Prudente - SP, Brazil. We used the fully randomized experimental design with split plots and five replications. The plots consisted of three treatments ("Witness" drinking water, 50% of SWW and 100% of SWW dilution) and the five-period ARS collection periods for chemical analysis [0 (characterization), 7, 14, 21 and 28 days]. The collection of the E. crassipes plants was carried out at 28 days along with the last SWW collection. The E. crassipes cropped in 100% SWW provided greater nutrient uptake, plant development and dry matter accumulation of this aquatic macrophyte, reducing gradually as the SWW concentration decreases. It is recommended the E. crassipes crop in SW... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

The wide use and the incomplete metabolism of antibiotics, along with the poor removal efficiency of current treatment systems, results in the introduction of large quantities of antibiotics to the environment through the discharge of treated and untreated wastewater. If not treated or attenuated near the source of discharge, the antibiotics can be distributed widely in the environment. In this research, sulfamethoxazole (SMX), a common sulfonamide antibiotic, was selected as a model compound due to its presence in the environment and its resistance to remediation and natural attenuation. Among the various entry routes, discharges from on-site disposal systems are of particular interest due to the wide use of these systems. The complex nature of subsurface transport downstream of these systems adds difficulties to the removal of SMX from subsurface discharges. For this research, two processes that impact SMX removal, biodegradation and sorption, were examined to determine the primary factors governing the elimination of SMX from septic effluent discharges in the subsurface. To characterize the biodegradation of SMX, batch experiments were conducted with SMX in the presence of septic effluent and soil for both aerobic and anoxic conditions. Results showed that SMX removal was limited in the septic effluent but increased in the presence of soil, demonstrating the important role of the soil in SMX removal in both aerobic and anoxic conditions. Addition of external nutrients (ammonium and sulfate) had small effects on SMX removal, although SMX removal was enhanced under aerobic condition with increased dissolved organic carbon. To overcome the limited sorption of SMX on soil, soil amendments were developed and evaluated using biochar, a green and cost-effective adsorbent. Biochars produced from different types of feedstock were characterized for different pyrolysis temperatures, and their adsorption behaviors were examined and compared with commercial biochar and activated carbon (AC). Adsorption isotherms were developed and adsorption kinetics of soil, biochar and AC were studied. Results showed that adsorption on soil, biochar and AC followed three different kinetics models and their equilibrium isotherms followed the Freunlich model. Higher adsorption rates were achieved with biochars prepared at the higher temperature. A lab-engineered biochar with pine sawdust at 500 °C achieved comparable sorption capacity to AC. SMX transport in subsurface was also explored with saturated soil columns filled with soil that was mixed with biochar at different percentages. Significant SMX removal (including complete elimination at a low flowrate and over 90 % elimination at a high flowrate) for all cases was primarily attributed to biodegradation. These results provide insight into the transport and transformations affecting SMX, and then provide a basis for developing low-cost approaches for the mitigation of SMX.

Os efluentes líquidos de curtumes apresentam altas cargas orgânicas e de poluentes que devem ser tratados corretamente para atingir os padrões legais para seu descarte, evitando a eutrofização de corpos hídricos e poluição das águas. O acabamento do couro é o estágio final da produção, onde o couro recebe as características desejadas de acordo com os produtos e artigos que serão produzidos. Os efluentes das etapas de processamento para acabamento do couro são responsáveis por conterem poluentes químicos devido ao uso de corantes, surfactantes, metais tóxicos, agentes emulsificantes, recurtentes, óleos, pigmentos, resinas, entre outros produtos químicos adicionados. As microalgas têm sido alvo de vários estudos no âmbito de tratamento de efluentes, devido à sua capacidade de remover diversos nutrientes, matéria orgânica do meio e por serem formas mais limpas e econômicas de tratar os poluentes. Diante disto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o emprego de um consórcio de microalgas para tratamento de efluentes de um curtume e analisar a capacidade de remoção de poluentes que são nutrientes para estes microrganismos. Os efluentes foram caracterizados ao longo dos ensaios com o consórcio de microalgas por meio de Nitrogênio Total (NT), Amônia (NH3), Fósforo (P-PO4), Carbono total (CT), Carbono Orgânico Total (COT), Carbono inorgânico (CI), DQO e Demanda Biológica de Oxigênio (DBO) e foi acompanhado o crescimento das microalgas. Para os experimentos foram coletados efluentes em três estágios distintos em uma estação de tratamento: efluente bruto (B), efluente após tratamento primário de coagulação/floculação (P) e efluente após ao tratamento biológico secundário (S). Os resultados com concentração de efluente de 50%, diluídos em água destilada (A), após 16 dias de cultivo, mostraram que houve crescimento do consórcio nos três efluentes com um crescimento máximo de 1,77 g L-1 no efluente Bruto (50B50A). Na sequência, foi testado o cultivo em efluente bruto (100B) e em efluentes compostos nas seguintes proporções: 50% efluente bruto + 50% efluente após tratamento biológico (50B50S) e 25% efluente bruto + 75% efluente após tratamento biológico (25B75S). Foi possível cultivar o consórcio no efluente bruto sem diluição, entretanto os resultados foram ruins, pois o mesmo apresentou baixo crescimento e, consequentemente, baixos níveis de remoção de nutrientes. Com o efluente composto 25B75S percebeu-se morte rápida das microalgas, uma vez que o efluente apresentava baixas concentrações de nutrientes. Em contrapartida, no efluente 50B50S foram atingidos valores efetivos de crescimento e remoção de nutrientes. Em cultivos fotoautotrófico, mixotrófico e heterotrófico de efluente composto 50B50S e de 75% efluente bruto + 25% efluente após tratamento biológico (75B25S), os melhores resultados foram atingidos no efluente 75B25S no cultivo fotoautotrófico, crescendo até 1,42 g L-1 e atingindo valores de remoção de NNH3, Nitrogênio Total (NT), DQO, carbono orgânico total (TOC) e demanda biológica de oxigênio (DBO5), de 99,90%, 74,89%, 56,70%, 58,18% e 20,68%, respectivamente. Ao obter a microalga isolada Tetraselmis sp. predominante no consórcio foi analisado os parâmetros anteriores em cultivo fotoautotrófico, além disso foi verificada a quantidade de lipídio presente na biomassa. A microalga Tetraselmis sp. apresentou um crescimento notório no cultivo fotoautotrófico com remoções eficientes dos parâmetros e 5,0% de lipídio no peso seco. / Liquid effluents from tanneries present high organic and pollutant loads and must be treated correctly to meet the legal standards for effluent disposal and to avoid eutrophication of water bodies and water pollution. The leather finish is the final stage of production, where the leather receives the desired characteristics according to leather goods and articles. The effluents from the processing steps for leather finishing are responsible for containing chemical pollutants due to the use of dyes, surfactants, toxic metals, emulsifying agents, retanning agents, oils, pigments, resins, among other chemicals added. Microalgae have been the subject of several studies in the field of effluent treatment due to their ability to remove various nutrients, organic matter from the environment and to be cleaner and more economical ways to treat pollutants. In this work, the growth of a microalgae consortium for the treatment of effluents from a tannery was analyzed and the capacity of removal of Total Nitrogen (NT), Ammonia (NH3), Phosphorus (P-PO4), Total Carbon ), Total Organic Carbon (COD), COD and Biological Oxygen Demand (DBO), as well as the growth of microalgae biomass in these effluents. The effluents were characterized before and after the trials with the microalgae consortium. Effluents were collected in three distinct stages at a treatment plant: crude effluent (B), effluent after primary coagulation / flocculation (P) treatment and effluent after secondary biological treatment (S). The results with 50% effluent concentration, diluted in distilled water (A) after 16 days of cultivation, showed that there was a consortium growth in the three effluents with a maximum growth of 1.77 g L-1 in the crude effluent (50P50A). (50B50S) and 25% crude effluent + 75% effluent after biological treatment (25B75S) were tested in the following proportions: 50% crude effluent + 50% effluent after biological treatment (50B50S). It was not possible to cultivate the consortium in pure crude effluent, since it presented low growth and, consequently, low levels of nutrient removal. With the compound effluent 25B75S it was observed rapid death of the microalgae, since the effluent presented low concentrations of nutrients. On the other hand, in the effluent 50B50S, effective values of growth and nutrient removal were achieved. In photoautotrophic, mixotrophic and heterotrophic cultures of 50B50S effluent and 75% crude effluent + 25% effluent after biological treatment (75B25S), the best results were reached in the effluent 75B25S in photoautotrophic cultivation, growing up to 1.42 g L-1 and reaching values of removal of N-NH3, total nitrogen (NT), (DQO), total organic carbon (COT) and biological oxygen demand (DBO), of 99.90%, 74.89%, 56.70%, 58.18% and 20.68%, respectively. By obtaining the isolated microalgae Tetraselmis sp., predominant in the consortium and analyzed and the previous parameters in photoautotrophic cultivation, in addition to being verified the amount of lipid present in the biomass. The microalgae Tetraselmis sp. showed a notable growth in photoautotrophic cultivation with efficient removal of the parameters and 5.0% of lipid in dry weight.

O presente trabalho discorre sobre o uso da metaheurística do Recozimento Simulado (Simulated Annealing) na otimização do planejamento de sistemas regionais de tratamento de efluentes e na sua expansão da capacidade. O primeiro modelo desenvolvido trata da otimização espacial de um sistema regional: dadas fontes de efluentes e locais potenciais para instalação de estações de tratamento, o modelo busca a configuração regional de menor custo. O modelo é composto de duas fases: a primeira é um modelo hidráulico que valida a rede proposta através da solução da equação universal de perda de cargas e uma otimização por Recozimento, visto haver inúmeras soluções, já que a rede pode ter qualquer sentido de fluxo. Esta otimização hidráulica visa minimizar o bombeamento do sistema. A segunda fase compreende a otimização do sistema regional, onde novas configurações e/ou alterações de diâmetros são testadas. Esta segunda otimização também é resolvida via Recozimento com o intuito de minimizar o custo do sistema. O segundo modelo trata da expansão da capacidade do sistema: o período de planejamento é dividido em duas etapas. O Recozimento é aplicado nas duas etapas. Soluções propostas para a segunda etapa são passo a passo testadas para a primeira etapa, de modo que o resultado espelhe uma otimização de todo o período. O uso intenso do Recozimento e de simulações na obtenção de soluções iniciais e candidatas leva a um tempo de processamento bastante elevado, especialmente no caso do Modelo Dinâmico. Os modelos foram testados em uma bacia exemplo obtida da literatura e também na bacia do rio Barigui, na Região Metropolitana de Curitiba. Foram desenvolvidas funções de custo para interceptores, estações elevatórias e estações de tratamento de efluentes com base em dados de obras efetuadas na Região Metropolitana de Curitiba. O uso da metaheurística do Recozimento Simulado provou ser um caminho interessante para a otimização de sistemas regionais tais como de tratamento de efluentes. Estudos adicionais são necessários no sentido de se obter um modelo hidráulico de maior eficiência computacional, um número maior de testes com os parâmetros do Recozimento e funções de custo mais abrangentes, especialmente quanto a custos de operação e manutenção. / This study is concerned with the use of the metaheuristic Simulated Annealing for the optimal planning of regional effluent systems and its capacity expansion. The first model deals with the spatial optimization of the system: given a network where some nodes represent effluent sources and other nodes represent the location of possible sewage treatment plants, the model seeks the minimum cost configuration. The first module of the model verifies the hydraulic viability of proposed configurations, by solving the universal equation of head loss. This is also done via annealing since there is a multitude of solutions because any flow direction is allowed. The second part of the model consists of trying different candidate solutions for the network, by means of changing its configurations and/or diameters and looking for the lowest cost solution. The second model deals with the capacity expansion of the system. The planning horizon is divided in two parts. Each solution for the second period is tested also for the first period, thus providing a global minimum for the entire planning period. The use of annealing coupled with intensive use of simulation results in large processing times, especially for the dynamic model. The models were tested for a network available in the literature and also in the Barigui river basin, in the Metropolitan Region of Curitiba, PR. Cost equations were derived for conveyance systems, lifting stations and wastewater treatment plants. The use of Simulated Annealing proved to be an interesting tool for the planning and optimization of regional systems such as the ones here studied. Further studies are recommended such as a mix of the two hydraulic models developed, seeking for the improvement of computational time. Additional testing of the annealing parameters are also needed and O&M cost functions should be detailed.

Com o intuito de viabilizar, ambiental e economicamente, a degradação de algumas substâncias perigosas e recalcitrantes, presentes em águas e efluentes, foi desenvolvido um sistema para estudar a tratabilidade dessas substâncias, utilizando Processos Oxidativos Avançados POAs. As espécies escolhidas foram o fenol (C6H5OH) a 50 mg L-1 e o cianeto de potássio (KCN) a 20 mg L-1. Os resíduos químicos foram submetidos a tratamentos com diferentes doses de O3 (0, 2,4 e 4,8 g h-1), H2O2 (0, 150 e 300 mg L-1 para o fenol e 0, 60 e 120 mg L-1 para o cianeto) e UV (0, 8 e 32 watts), pois tais combinações promovem a geração de radicais hidroxila (OH), cujo potencial de oxidação é superior ao de cada oxidante individualmente. O sistema desenvolvido funciona em batelada com recirculação, possibilitando todas as combinações de interesse entre os oxidantes, com capacidade máxima de 300 mL de resíduo, volume adotado para todos os testes deste trabalho. O sistema é composto por uma coluna cilíndrica disposta na posição vertical, ligada a um reator UV. Outros equipamentos instalados são a bomba para a circulação do resíduo, o concentrador de O2, o ozonizador (0-24 g h-1), cujo gás é insuflado pela base da coluna, e seu excesso passa pelo destruidor de O3, composto por uma coluna preenchida com carvão ativado. A solução de H2O2 é adicionada ao sistema com o auxílio de uma seringa. A eficiência do processo de mineralização do fenol, foi avaliada através de 27 tratamentos (combinações) nos tempos de 15 e 30 minutos e pH 6,5. As amostras coletadas foram analisadas em equipamento Shimadzu TOC-5000A, obtendo-se a concentração de carbono orgânico total. Os dados foram submetidos à análise estatística (Fatorial e teste de Tukey, p<0,05). As combinações com os melhores resultados foram utilizadas para uma segunda etapa de testes, variando os tempos em 5, 15, 30 e 45 minutos. Os novos dados foram submetidos à análise estatística e, novamente, as combinações com melhores resultados foram utilizadas para avaliação do efeito do pH (6,5 e 9,5) na mineralização do fenol. A combinação O3 (4,8 g h-1) / UV (32 watts) / H2O2 (300 mg L-1), em pH 9,5, apresentou a melhor condição de tratamento em 30 minutos, proporcionando 99,7% de mineralização do fenol. O delineamento experimental do cianeto foi baseado nas melhores razões oxidante/resíduo obtidas para o fenol. Foi preparada solução 8,13 mg L-1 de CN previamente alcalinizada (pH 11,0). Os tempos estudados foram 1, 2, 4, 5 e 10 minutos e as amostras foram submetidas à análise de N-NO3 por espectrofotometria em sistema por análise em fluxo. Neste caso a combinação O3 (4,8 g h-1) / UV (32 watts), proporcionou 97,6% da oxidação do cianeto à NO3 em 7 minutos de tratamento. Os custos dos tratamentos nas melhores condições foram de R$ 11,08 por litro de fenol tratado e R$ 4,20 por litro de cianeto tratado. Concluiu-se que o sistema proposto foi eficiente no tratamento de ambos resíduos químicos (fenol e cianeto) em um curto período de tempo / In order to facilitate, environmentally and economically, the degradation of some hazardous and recalcitrant substances, presented in waters and wastewaters, a system was developed to study the treatability of chemical substances using Advanced Oxidative Processes AOPs. The substances chosen were phenol (C6H5OH) at 50 mg L-1 and potassium cyanide (KCN) at 20 mg L-1. The chemical residues were submitted to treatments with different combinations and doses of O3 (0, 2.4, and 4.8 g h-1), H2O2 (0, 150 and 300 mg L-1 for phenol and 0, 60 and 120 mg L-1 for cyanide) and ultraviolet radiation (0, 8 and 32 watts), as these combinations promote the generation of hydroxyl radicals (OH), whose oxidation potential is greater than of each oxidant individually. The developed system works in batch treatments with recirculation, allowing all combinations of interests among the oxidants, with a maximum capacity of 300 mL of waste, adopted for all tests of this work. The system consists of a cylindrical column disposed in the vertical position and connected to a UV reactor. Other installed equipments are the pump for residual recirculation, the O2 concentrator, the ozonator (0-24 g h-1), which gas is blown from the base of the column and its excess is destroyed by the equipment composed of a glass column filled with granulate activated carbon. The solution of H2O2 is added to the system with the aid of a syringe. The efficiency of the mineralization of phenol was evaluated in 27 treatments in 15 and 30 minutes and pH 6.5. The collected samples were analyzed in Shimadzu TOC 5000A equipment, obtaining the concentration of total organic carbon (TOC). The obtained data were submitted to statistical analysis (Factorial and Tukey test, p<0.05). The combinations with the best results were used for a second phase of tests, varying the time at 5, 15, 30, and 45 minutes. The new data were submitted to statistical analysis and the best performing combinations were used to evaluate the effect of pH (6.5 and 9.5) in the mineralization of phenol. The combination of O3 (4.8 g h-1) / UV (32 watts) / H2O2 (300 mg L-1) at pH 9.5 showed the best treatment condition in 30 minutes, providing 99.7% of phenol mineralization. The experimental design of cyanide was based on the best oxidant/residue reasons obtained for phenol. A solution with 8.13 mg L-1 of CN previously alkaline (pH 11.0) was prepared. The treatment times were 1, 2, 4, 5 and 10 minutes and the samples were submitted to N-NO3 analysis by spectrophotometry system in flow injection analysis. In this case the combination O3 (4.8 g h-1) / UV (32 watts) provided 97.6 % of oxidation of the cyanide to NO3 in 7 minutes of treatment. The costs of treatments in the best conditions were R$ 11,08 per litter of phenol treated and R$ 4,20 per litter of cyanide treated. It can be concluded that the proposed system was effective in the treatment of both chemical residues (phenol and cyanide) in a short period of time

A avaliação da presença de compostos orgânicos voláteis nos efluentes líquidos é importante para atendimento à legislação vigente e proteção do sistema de esgotamento sanitário e da saúde ocupacional. Objetivos: o uso de técnica rápida de identificação e quantificação de compostos orgânicos voláteis do grupo BTEX presentes em amostras de efluentes líquidos através das emissões gasosas permite verificar quais delas não atendem à legislação vigente, através de faixas de concentração de interesse. A possibilidade de efetuar em campo essa avaliação promove maior agilidade nas ações de controle da qualidade do efluente bem como da exposição ocupacional. Também permite racionalizar os custos de monitoramento através da redução das amostras enviadas aos laboratórios. Materiais e métodos: os compostos avaliados causam agravos à saúde e, por serem altamente voláteis, possuem altos percentuais de distribuição no ar. O benzeno é comprovadamente cancerígeno, não existindo limites seguros para exposição a esse composto. A legislação brasileira fornece os subsídios necessários para o controle da produção, usos e disposição de BTEX. Há ações em andamento para um melhor controle e monitoramento da exposição ocupacional ao benzeno, em especial, e também ações para o monitoramento das populações expostas a ele. Com o objetivo de efetuar leituras no campo que identifiquem e quantifiquem os compostos do grupo BTEX, optou-se pela utilização de espectrofotômetro de infravermelho portátil. Resultados: os resultados das leituras das emissões desses compostos foram comparados com os resultados das análises de BTEX efetuadas nos efluentes líquidos. Para tanto, foram considerados os parâmetros existentes na legislação relativos à exposição ocupacional e à legislação de lançamento de efluentes. Conclusão: a avaliação dos resultados permite dizer que é factível a utilização da leitura das emissões gasosas para identificar a presença de BTEX em amostras de efluentes líquidos e que essas leituras podem quantificar valores que ultrapassem as faixas de concentração de interesse, através dos modelos de regressão identificados nessa avaliação. Para a construção de modelos de regressão mais confiáveis entre as concentrações das emissões gasosas e das concentrações no efluente líquido, são necessários estudos complementares. / The evaluation of the presence of volatile organic compounds in wastewater is important for compliance with current regulations, protection of the wastewater sewer systems and occupational health. Objectives: Identification and quantification of volatile organic compounds of BTEX group present in samples of liquid effluents through their gaseous emissions, allows checking which of them do not meet the current regulation, through concentration ranges of interest. The possibility of performing this evaluation in the field promotes greater flexibility in efforts to control the quality of the effluent as well as occupational exposure. It also allows streamlining the monitoring costs through reduction of liquid samples to be sent to laboratories. Materials and methods: The compounds evaluated cause health problems and for being highly volatile have high percentages of distribution in the air. Benzene is a proven carcinogen and there are no safe limits for exposure to this compound. Brazilian regulations provide the necessary subsidies for production control, uses and disposal of BTEX subsidies needed to control the production, uses and disposal of BTEX. There are ongoing activities to better control and monitoring of occupational exposure and also actions for monitoring populations exposed to benzene. An infrared spectrophotometer was used in air analyses to identify BTEX. Results: The results of the compounds emissions scans were compared with the results of BTEX analyzes in wastewater. For both parameters were considered in the regulation relating to occupational exposure and the rules of effluent discharge. Conclusion: The evaluation of the results allows saying that it is feasible to use gaseous emissions scans to identify the presence of BTEX in wastewater samples and they can indicate scans that exceed the concentration ranges of interest, through mathematical models this assessment. For mathematical models that provide precise curves of the correlation between the concentrations of gaseous emissions and liquid effluent concentrations, complementary studies are needed.

With the ever increasing demand for potable water due to the continued increase in population coupled with the threat of California’s current drought, water will remain a limited resource that must be managed responsibly. In order to strategically plan and manage water use in the most beneficial manner, water providers must take into account all sources of water, including recycled water and their applications. Recycled water as a source for supplementing high quality potable water is a sustainable strategy that will prove to be an essential tactic in any water management plan. The purpose of this project is to emphasize the importance of supplementing potable water in the City of Banning by discussing the characteristics of California’s current water drought; evaluating the City of Banning’s available water supplies and current water demand; discussing the Soil Aquifer Treatment process; summarizing California’s regulations related to recycled water; and discussing the quality of recycled water available at NP-1, an unequipped City owned water well, by examining water quality testing on water samples taken from NP-1. Analysis of water available at NP-1 showed that with additional disinfection, the water pumped from NP-1 could meet the recycled water requirements in order to be used on a local golf course. The local golf course is currently being irrigated with potable water, which would be supplemented with the recycled water from NP-1.

The pulp and paper industry in New Zealand annually produces over one hundred thousand dry tonnes of solid waste due to the treatment of pulp and paper mill effluents, the majority of which is currently landfilled. The New Zealand Waste Management Strategy (2002) has set a target for the diversion of commercial organic wastes from landfill to beneficial use to exceed 95% by 2010 . Effluents produced by softwood pulp mills, such as in New Zealand, contain high concentrations of naturally derived resin extractive compounds that are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Improvements in waste water treatment technology has enabled the industry to meet rigorous discharge standards, however, this has resulted in an increase in the production of pulp mill effluent solids which require disposal. This has become an issue for the pulp and paper industry, especially as current landfill space is limited. Land application has been used for many years as a means of disposal of pulp mill wastes. While most studies investigating land application of pulp mill effluent solids have concluded that the risk posed to the environment is low, few have investigated the potential toxicity of these wastes to soil organisms, and these studies did not directly address the effects of resin extractive compounds. Resin extractives have been shown to be recalcitrant and to accumulate in anaerobic sediments. It is not known to what extent resin extractives are bioavailable or degradable in land applied Pulp mill effluent solids (PMES), or their potential to bioaccumulate in soil organisms. This PhD thesis research sought to extend the knowledge on the environmental fate and effects of pulp mill effluent wastes. It focused on terrestrial systems, which have not been well studied in this respect. Four chemically distinct softwood pulp mill effluent solids, a primary treatment solid and three secondary treatment biosolids, were used to investigate their effects on soil organisms and soil functions. An interdisciplinary approach was adopted, which incorporated three main areas of study, as follows: 1. A comprehensive resin extractives analysis of the pulp mill effluent solids undertaken so that effects on soil organisms and soil functions could be related to the resin extractives chemistry of the individual pulp mill effluent solids tested. 2. A battery of bioassays used to investigate the toxicity of the selected pulp mill effluent solids. 3. A field trial set-up to investigate how pulp mill effluent solids affected soil functions and also to investigate the decomposition of pulp mill effluent solids and of resin extractives in these solids. Three hypotheses tested were: I. Pulp mill effluent solids are toxic to soil organisms. II. Resin extractives in pulp mill effluent solids are recalcitrant in the terrestrial environment. III. Pulp mill effluent solids will cause significant measurable negative impacts on soil functional capacity. A wide range of resin extractives compounds were identified in pulp mill effluent solids, and concentrations of individual compounds varied widely between the different pulp mill effluent solids tested. During the two years after field application of the pulp mill effluent solids, resin extractives declined, however, decay rates of individual compounds were variable. The decay rate of compounds was influenced by the type of pulp mill effluent solids containing these compounds and not by the initial concentration of compounds. All compounds, including resin acids, degraded rapidly in the applied primary solid and in one of the applied biosolids, with average half-lives calculated ranging from three to twelve months. In the other biosolids, resin acids were recalcitrant with average half-lives calculated to be nearly ten years. Laboratory bioassays conducted on oats, earthworms and enchytraeid worms indicated that pulp mill effluent solids had low toxicity to these organisms. An aquatic bioassay organism, however, was acutely affected by aqueous extracts from pulp mill effluent solids. Earthworms were shown to bioaccumulate some resin extractive compounds to a limited extent, indicating that resin extractives were bioavailable in pulp mill effluent solids. Enchytraeid reproduction was reduced by exposure to some pulp mill effluent solids but this was not correlated to resin extractives concentration of the solids tested. Field applied pulp mill effluent solids significantly enhanced the fluxes of CO2 from the soil surface. When mass losses of pulp mill effluent solids carbon were taken into account, it was shown that these solids had little effect on soil respiration. Needle litterbags were placed above and below pulp mill effluent solids and in the litter horizon of a control treatment for 12 months. Needle litter decomposition was not significantly different between treatments, however, changes in enzyme activities were detected in litter beneath pulp mill effluent solids compared to control needle litter that had not been exposed to pulp mill effluent solids. The decomposition rate of field applied pulp mill effluent solids was slow, with half-lives extrapolated to be between five and twenty five years. The decomposition rate appeared to be influenced by the pools of carbon available for decomposition, with primary solids decaying significantly faster than biosolids due to a higher cellulose component. The conclusions of the PhD thesis research are, therefore, that generally, pulp mill effluent solids used in the study were demonstrated to be relatively benign and appear to pose a low risk to the terrestrial ecosystem when applied to soil. However, a cautious approach is still recommended to land application, based on the extensive evidence of disruption to aquatic ecosystems, and because pulp mill effluent solids will take many years to decompose and resin acids are recalcitrant in some pulp mill effluent solids. Further research is recommended to elucidate mechanisms of action by resin extractives in soil organisms and the ultimate fate of these compounds in the soil compartment.

The influence of effluent addition on denitrification potential in the Thredbo Wetland was observed by comparing an area of the wetland receiving secondary treated effluent with another area receiving no effluent addition. Physico-chemical measurements (Eh, pH and temperature) of the soil were conducted in both sampling areas to characterise the denitrifying environment. Levels of nitrate plus nitrite and ammonium ion in the soil from 0-30cm depth were recorded on a seasonal basis to identify the role of effluent addition and vertical distribution of inorganic nitrogen species in controlling the distribution of denitrification potential in the soil. Denitrification potentials of soils and decaying plant material were evaluated by the acetylene blockage technique. This involved laboratory incubations under optimum conditions of pH, temperature, nitrate concentration, carbon supply, and diffusion. The influence of these physico-chemical factors on denitrification was also investigated. It was found that the effluent addition caused higher denitrification potential in soils and surface decaying plant material by raising soil temperature, lowering Eh, and increasing concentrations of nitrate plus nitrite and ammonium ions. The highest denitrification potential was recorded in the decaying plant material on the soil surface. The highest soil denitrification potential occurred in the 0-6cm depth segment. Carbon supply and pH had no influence on denitrification potential whilst low temperature (5ºC), and restricted diffusion limited denitrification. In terms of tertiary water treatment denitrification in Thredbo Wetland makes a significant-contribution to the removal of nitrogen year-round. However, total nitrogen removal could be increased by increasing the residence time of water in the wetland thereby encouraging greater spatial and temporal interaction between the denitrifiers and the wastewater nitrogen.

Thredbo Village is a year round alpine resort located in Kosciusko National Park, south eastern New South Wales. Treated sewage effluent from Thredbo Village is discharged to the upper Thredbo River. The river is a rocky bottomed, high mountain stream (> 1,200 m altitude in the study area) flowing predominantly through subalpine woodland, the only major impact on the river within the study area was that of the Thredbo Village alpine ski resort. Nutrient concentrations were measured in the upper Thredbo River monthly from January to September 1983 at 9 sites along the river, both upstream and downstream of the effluent discharge. In addition, invertebrates were collected at the same sites in January, April and July 1983. The near pristine section of the upper Thredbo River upstream of Thredbo Village was low in phosphorus and nitrogen (<20 mg m-3 and <100 mg m-3 respectively). The sewage effluent discharge was high in phosphorus and nitrogen (up to 5,000 mg m-3 and 28,000 mg m-3 respectively). Phosphorus generally returned to concentrations similar to those measured in the pristine sections by 3.5 kilometres downstream of the discharge. Nitrogen (mostly in the form of nitrate and nitrite) often remained elevated down to the most downstream site, 8 kilometres downstream of the effluent discharge. The elevated nutrient concentrations immediately downstream of the effluent discharge stimulated the growth of attached filamentous algae in January when conditions for growth were most favourable. It is concluded that this growth provided an additional food source for several invertebrate taxa, Cricolopus sp. 12E and 160E (Diptera, Chironomidae), Conoesucidae sp. TR6, Oxyethira columba (Trichoptera), Nais sp., Aeolosomatus niveum (Oligochaeta), and Austrocercella tillyardi (Plecoptera), which occurred in higher numbers downstream of the effluent discharge. Downstream of the effluent discharge the taxonomic composition of the invertebrate community was not altered substantially from that upstream, although there was a significant increase in the abundance of the taxa which could take advantage of the increased food resource. The changes in the invertebrate community were not evident 3.5 kilometres downstream of the effluent discharge, which corresponded to the return of phosphorus concentrations to background levels. There were increased abundances of several invertebrate taxa downstream of both Thredbo Village and the rubbish tip in January which were consistent with, but not as great as, those downstream of the sewage effluent discharge. This was likely to be a result of increased nutrient loads from urban runoff and tip leachate at these sites which possibly lead to increased algal productivity. However, nutrient concentrations at these sites were not notably higher than at the control site. The sewage effluent discharge resulted in only small changes to the invertebrate community in April or July 1983.