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Existing literature has demonstrated an association between higher adolescent religiousness and lower risk taking via higher self-regulation. However, the present study uniquely sought to elucidate whether particular dimensions of self-regulation (i.e., emotion regulation, effortful control, and executive function) play differential roles in establishing this relation. It was hypothesized in longitudinal analyses over one year that higher religiousness would be associated with higher emotion regulation, which in turn was hypothesized to be associated with higher effortful control and executive function, and, subsequently, higher effortful control and higher executive function to be associated with higher risk taking. Participants included 157 adolescents at Time 1 (mean age = 14 years, 52% male) and 140 adolescents returned for Time 2 (mean age = 15 years, 53% male). Structural equation models, including confirmatory factor analysis and path models tested significant individual paths and mediation via bias corrected bootstrapping supported hypotheses across multiple alternative models, except for hypotheses regarding mediation analyses, which received limited empirical support. The findings highlight that higher religiousness is associated with higher emotion regulation and, in turn, higher emotion regulation is associated with higher executive function and effortful control which, subsequently, are associated with lower adolescent risk taking. In light of this, religiousness is understood as a contextual protective factor for adolescents and intervention strategies targeting emotion regulation, executive function, and effortful control may be associated with lower adolescent risk taking. / Ph. D.

Shyness is highly related to internalizing problems. However, not all shy children develop serious internalizing problems (IP). The aim of the current study was to identify the endogenous factors that might contribute to the resilience process from a self-regulation perspective. Participants included 73 children (33 boys; 40girls) who visited the lab at 6 and 9 years of age. Shyness, attentional control (AC), inhibitory control (IC), frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry were measured at both 6 and 9 years using age appropriate questionnaires and tasks. Results indicated that age 6 shyness did not directly predict age 9 IP; instead it indirectly predicted IP through age 9 shyness. Neither AC, IC, frontal EEG asymmetry, nor the stability of frontal EEG asymmetry moderated the association between age 6 shyness and age 9 IP. However, there was a positive concurrent association between shyness and IP at 9 years. In addition, AC and IC moderated the shyness-IP association at age 9. Shyness was significantly associated with IP only when children had low AC or IC, but not when children had high AC or IC. / Master of Science / Shyness is highly related to internalizing problems. However, not all shy children develop serious internalizing problems (IP). The aim of the current study was to identify the within-individual factors that might protect children away from having IP from a self-regulation perspective. Participants included 73 children (33 boys; 40girls) who visited the lab at 6 and 9 years of age. Shyness, attentional control (AC), inhibitory control (IC), frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry were measured at both 6 and 9 years using age appropriate questionnaires and tasks. Results indicated that children who are shy at 6 years old may not have IP at 9 years old. Instead children who are shy at 6 years old tend to be shy at 9 years old. And those who are shy at 9 years old are more likely to have IP at the same period of time. Neither AC, IC, frontal EEG asymmetry, nor the stability of frontal EEG asymmetry affect the direction or degree of the association between age 6 shyness and age 9 IP. In addition, AC and IC affect the concurrent shyness-IP association at age 9. Shyness was significantly associated with IP only when children had low AC or IC, but not when children had high AC or IC.

Given the ubiquity of media use, especially among young children, the current study examines the impact of problematic media use (PMU) on children's (N = 418, M age = 53.62 months, SD = 3.38 months, M and SD are taken from the full sample of 418 children) physiological functioning. With previous studies reporting relations between media use, temperament, and physiological regulation, it was hypothesized that children with greater levels of PMU would have lower levels of baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA; a measure of physiological regulatory capacity). It is further hypothesized that, higher levels of negative affect, and lower levels of effortful control (two distinct domains of temperament) would be linked to both PMU and RSA and that temperament might mediate the associations between PMU and physiological regulation (RSA) (i.e., higher negative affect, lower effortful control linked to higher PMU and lower RSA). Data were drawn from Wave 5 of Project M.E.D.I.A, a longitudinal study of the effects of media on children's development. Findings revealed that PMU was significantly linked to lower baseline RSA for girls, but not for boys. Both boys' and girls' PMU was linked to higher levels of negative affect. Girls' PMU was linked to lower effortful control. The hypothesis that temperament would meditate links between PMU and RSA was not supported. The sex difference in the relation between PMU and baseline RSA are discussed, including potential differences in content of media girls are using as well as potential developmental differences for girls' reactivity compared to boys. Overall, PMU may lead to diminished physiological regulation, especially for girls, and appears to be linked to higher levels of negative affect in children. It is important for parents to be aware of the potential impact media use may have on their children's development.

This study used extant data to examine the role of executive functioning (EF) and intervention dosage in predicting student behavioral outcomes throughout a social-emotional intervention. Data were collected in 19 kindergarten classrooms in Midwest public schools during the 2010-2011 academic year. The sample included 260 students with approximately 49% (n = 126) identified by parents as female and approximately 52% (n = 134) identified by parents as male. Factor analyses and correlational analyses were conducted with all observed behaviors and with all rating scale and task-based EF measures to detect underlying constructs for analysis. However, neither the behaviors nor the rating scale EF measures demonstrated adequately sized correlations to justify combining them into composite variables. Therefore, rating scale EF measures were entered independently into analyses for individual behavioral outcomes. Generalized additive models (GAM) were used to determine the significance of increased exposure to the intervention and various rating scale and task-based measures of EF for prosocial (i.e., cooperative play, on-task, and helping) and maladaptive (i.e., disruptive, physically aggressive, and verbally aggressive) behaviors. Results indicate that some behavioral outcomes improved significantly during the intervention, while most were unaffected. Parent and teacher ratings were predictive of some behavioral outcomes; however, there was no evidence that task-based measures were significant predictors of any classroom behaviors. These results highlight the value and complexity of classroom behavioral observations, as well as the importance of improving understandings of which social-emotional curricula are most effective for addressing both prosocial and maladaptive behaviors, as well as the underlying mechanisms responsible for their efficacy. / School Psychology

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relations among Taiwanese elementary school children's effortful control, social relationships and their adjustment at school. Data were gathered on 407 third- to sixth-grade children (81 third graders, 79 fourth graders, 116 fifth graders, and 131 sixth graders) attending three low- to middle-class public elementary schools in Taipei County, Taiwan. Participating children as well as their parents, teachers, and peers provided questionnaire and peer sociometric data. Two main research questions were addressed: a) whether there were direct relations among children's effortful control, social relationships, and adjustment at school; b) whether social relationships mediate the relations between children's effortful control and their adjustment at school. Additionally, two alternative models were tested to evaluate the likelihood of other conceptual considerations. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data and examine the direct and meditational relations among the study constructs. As expectation, findings of this study provided illuminating evidence for the direct effects of effortful control on children's adjustment at school. Moreover, the role of teacher-child relationships as a mediator in the pathways from effortful control to children's adjustment at school (i.e., social behavior, school attitudes, and academic adjustment) was strongly supported. Consistent with the hypotheses, the meditational effects of peer relationships were also clearly supported in the pathways from effortful control to social behavior as well as school attitudes. However, inconsistent with the hypothesis, there is no evidence of mediating effect of peer relationships by which effortful control contribute to academic adjustment. Finally, to compare with the alternative models, the hypothesized model was ranked as the best fit model to the given data. In general, the current study suggested that children's self-regulatory capabilities (i.e., effortful control) influence their adjustment at school both directly and indirectly through their relationships with teachers and peers. It contributes to the literature of children's school adjustment by examining the effects of both dispositional self-regulation and social relationships. It is also one of the first studies to examine how teacher-child relationships and peer relationships are linked to multiple aspects of children's adjustment at school. For practical implications, it is critical to provide parents, caregivers, and teachers with specific strategies and techniques to support the development of effortful control. The findings of the study also call for a need to develop preventive interventions or training programs focusing on the development of positive classroom relationships.

Background: Developing a well-adept social competence in preschool years is considered important and seems to play a pivotal role in later social functioning like school readiness and academic competence. Due to the individual development in children, establishing potential early markers of early social problems has been difficult. Although parent, peer, and contextual factors may be important to children’s development of social competence, the present study addressed the range of individual differences in children that may facilitate or impede social skills development. Method: The paper is based on data from the comprehensive longitudinal Trondheim Early Secure Study (TESS) of a screen-stratified community sample of 2475 children who were assessed at 4 year of age (T1) and followed up at the age of 6 (T2) (n=797). General linear modeling weighting data back to yield true population estimates of the predictive value of Social Competence, Gender, Negative Affectivity, Surgency, Effortful Control, Inattention, Hyperactivity, Impulsivity, Peer Problems, Disorganized Attachment and Callous-Unemotional traits assessed at T1 in predicting Social Competence at T2, when adjusting for Social Competence at T1. Results: Analysis indicates that Social Competence, Surgency, Inattention, Peer Problems high levels of Callous-Unemotional traits and Disorganization were unique predictors of Social Competence when adjusting for all variables. Negative Affectivity failed to predict Social Competence. Conclusions: Beyond a sizable continuity in social competence a range of child characteristics may enhance social skills development in young children . The identification of such child factors, when controlling for other potential factors, may inform health promotion efforts towards increasing young children’s social competence.

The present study investigated variability in the remedial outcomes of 105 adolescents with reading disabilities who participated in PHAST PACES, a research-based reading intervention with a strong attributional retraining focus. The study focussed on the impact of three conative functions—intrinsic motivation, attributions, and effortful control—and their relationships with reading skill and reading growth. It was hypothesized that, following PHAST PACES, students would demonstrate improvement on reading outcomes, increased intrinsic motivation for reading, a shift from maladaptive to adaptive attributions, and improved effortful control. Students demonstrated significant gains on reading and effortful control measures following PHAST PACES intervention. The intrinsic motivation and attributional profiles of students did not improve. Students who performed best on reading measures at pre- and post-test made attributions of success to ability and avoided attributions of failure to ability, while reporting high perceived competence for reading, and demonstrating good effortful control.

The present study investigated variability in the remedial outcomes of 105 adolescents with reading disabilities who participated in PHAST PACES, a research-based reading intervention with a strong attributional retraining focus. The study focussed on the impact of three conative functions—intrinsic motivation, attributions, and effortful control—and their relationships with reading skill and reading growth. It was hypothesized that, following PHAST PACES, students would demonstrate improvement on reading outcomes, increased intrinsic motivation for reading, a shift from maladaptive to adaptive attributions, and improved effortful control. Students demonstrated significant gains on reading and effortful control measures following PHAST PACES intervention. The intrinsic motivation and attributional profiles of students did not improve. Students who performed best on reading measures at pre- and post-test made attributions of success to ability and avoided attributions of failure to ability, while reporting high perceived competence for reading, and demonstrating good effortful control.

abstract: I examined the role of children's or teacher's effortful control (EC) in children's academic functioning in early elementary school in two separate studies. In Study 1, I tested longitudinal relations between parents' reactions to children's displays of negative emotions in kindergarten, children's EC in first grade, and children's reading or math achievement in second grade (N = 291). In the fall of each school year, parents reported their positive or negative reactions and parents and teachers reported on children's EC. Standardized achievement tests assessed achievement each spring. Results from autoregressive panel mediation models demonstrated that constructs exhibited consistency across study years. In addition, first-grade EC mediated relations between parents' reactions (i.e., a difference composite of positive minus negative reactions) at kindergarten and second-grade math, but not reading, achievement. Findings suggest that one method of promoting math achievement in early school is through the socialization of children's EC. In Study 2, I examined relations between teachers' EC, teachers' reactions to children's negative emotions, the student-teacher relationship (STR), and children's externalizing behaviors or achievement among 289 second-graders and their 116 teachers. Results from mixed-model regressions showed that negative reactions and teacher-reported STR mediated relations between teachers' EC and math achievement. In addition, teacher-reported STR mediated links between teachers' EC and externalizing problems across reporters and between teachers' EC and reading achievement. Tests of moderated mediation indicated that a high-quality STR was negatively associated with externalizing problems and high levels of teachers' negative reactions were negatively related to math achievement only for students low in EC. In tests of moderation by social competence, teachers' reports of high-quality STRs tended to be negatively associated with externalizing problems, but relations were strongest for students not high in social competence. For students low in social competence only, children's reports of a high-quality STR was related to lower reading achievement. These results highlight the utility of considering whether and how teachers' own intrinsic characteristics influence classroom dynamics and students' academic functioning outcomes. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Family and Human Development 2011