Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) is one of the most important and prevalent viral pathogens of horses causing a major threat to the equine industry throughout most of the world. EHV-1 primarily causes respiratory disease but viral spread to distant organs enables the development of more severe sequelae; abortion and neurologic disease. In order to produce disease, EHV-1 has to overcome the innate barrier of the type-I interferon (IFN) system in host cells. However, the underlying mechanisms employed by EHV-1 to circumvent the type-I IFN response in host cells are not well understood. In this project study, using molecular techniques, we explored how EHV-1 is able to escape the type-I IFN response in host cells during infection. We also investigated whether EHV-4, a closely related but less pathogenic virus, has similar effects on type-I IFN as a clue to understanding how widespread IFN suppressive function is found among equine alphaherpesviruses. Our data showed that inhibition of the type-I IFN response in host cells is not a function of neuropathogenicity of EHV-1 strains. However, a reduced type-I IFN response correlated with pathogenicity as EHV-4, unlike EHV-1, was unable to down-regulate the type-I IFN response in equine endothelial cells (EECs). Investigation of the mechanisms employed by EHV-1 to suppress type-I IFN revealed that the virus sequentially prevented outside-in signaling events that lead to type-I IFN production. Specifically, EHV-1 blocked the expression of Toll-like receptors (TLR) 3 and TLR4 at 6 hours post-infection (hpi) and 12 hpi. EHV-1 also prevented the transcription of IRF7 and IRF9 at different time-points during infection. The virus also perturbed the JAK-STAT signaling pathway by negatively regulating the cellular levels of TYK2 and phosphorylation-mediated activation of STAT2 molecules. Immunofluorescence data revealed that during infection, EHV-1 was able to sequester STAT2 molecules from nuclear translocation. This may be a limiting step preventing the formation of interferon- stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) whose nuclear translocation is required to transactivate interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) including IRF7. Further investigation showed that unlike EHV-1, EHV-4 only interfered with phosphorylation-mediated activated STAT1 and STAT2 molecules at 3 and 6 hpi. EHV-4 was unable to block TLR3/4 and IRF7/9 mRNA expression at any time-point. Intriguingly, while viral late gene of EHV-1 mediates inhibition of STAT phosphorylation, our data showed that for EHV-4, a virus late gene did not mediate the inhibition of STAT phosphorylation. The findings from this study help illuminate how EHV-1 strategically interferes with limiting steps required for type-I IFN response in host cells to promote pathology. Our data also strengthen the hypothesis that the ability to shut off host factors required for type-I IFN production might be directly related to the degree of pathogenicity of the EHV subtypes.

No description available.

O herpesvirus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) é um importante patógeno que causa doença respiratória, abortamento e desordens neurológicas em equinos. O presente estudo foi realizado visando estabelecer um modelo murino de infecção pelo EHV-1 para investigar a resposta do hospedeiro frente à infecção viral e as alterações neurológicas causadas por esse agente. Camundongos das linhagens BALB/c, BALB/c nude, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6, C57BL/6 CD4-/- e C57BL/6 CD8-/- foram inoculados por via intranasal com as estirpes brasileiras A4/72, A9/92 e A3/97 do EHV-1. Neste estudo, associou-se a histopatologia, a imunoistoquímica e o método de transcrição reversa seguida pela PCR quantitativa em tempo real para investigar a relação entre a infecção pelo vírus com o desenvolvimento de lesões e a resposta de citocinas pró-inflamatórias no SNC de camundongos das diferentes linhagens. As estirpes brasileiras A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 causaram infecção aguda e letal nas diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos. Os sinais clínicos e neurológicos, tais como perda de peso, pelos arrepiados, postura arqueada, apatia, descarga nasal e ocular, dispnéia, desidratação e sialorréia apareceram entre o 2º e 3º dpi. Essas manifestações foram acompanhadas pelo aumento da sensibilidade a estímulos externos, convulsões, recumbência e morte. O vírus foi consistentemente isolado do SNC, pulmões, fígado, baço e timo de todos os camundongos com sinais neurológicos. As alterações histopatológicas consistiram de leptomeningite, hemorragia focal, ventriculite, degeneração e necrose neuronal, neuronofagia, inflamação não supurativa, gliose multifocal e infiltração perivascular de células polimorfonucleares e mononucleares. A análise imunoistoquímica demonstrou que as estirpes A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 replicaram-se nos neurônicos do bulbo olfatório, cortex cerebral e no hipocampo. Ao contrário, os camundongos inoculados com a estirpe A3/97 do EHV-1 não apresentaram perda de peso ou quaisquer sinais clínicos ou neurológicos; entretanto, o vírus foi isolado dos pulmões no 3º dpi. As estirpes A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 apresentaram tropismo pelo tecido nervoso com capacidade de neuroinvasão e neurovirulência. A estirpe A3/97 do EHV-1 não foi neurovirulenta, apesar de ter sido reisolada do SNC de camundongos BALB/c nude infectados. Detectou-se aumento da expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2 no SNC dos camundongos infectados pelo EHV-1 com 2 e 3 dpi; entretanto, não houve expressão de mRNA para IFN-γ. Os camundongos com o fundo genético C57BL/6, que apresentam predominantemente resposta do tipo Th1, mostraram níveis mais altos de expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2, quando comparados com os BALB/c. A gravidade dos sinais observados em camundongos infectados pode ser correlacionada com o pico destas citocinas pró-inflamatórias (TNF-α e IL-6) e da quimiocina CCL2, que são produzidas logo após a infecção viral por células residentes da glia e/ou infiltrativas no SNC. Esses achados indicam que as diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos são susceptíveis a infecção por estirpes neuropatogênicas do EHV-1 e poderiam servir como modelo para o estudo da patogênese e dos mecanismos que contribuem no desenvolvimento da mieloencefalopatia herpética equina. / Equid herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a major pathogen which causes respiratory disease, abortions and neurological disorders in horses. The present study was carried out to establish a murine model of EHV-1 infection and investigate host response against the virus and neurological disorders caused by this pathogen. BALB/c, BALB/c nude, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6, C57BL/6 CD4-/- and C57BL/6 CD8-/- mice were intranasally inoculated with EHV-1 A4/72, A9/92 and A3/97 Brazilian strains. In this study, we combined histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and a quantitative real-time RT-PCR method to investigate the relationship between virus infection and the development of lesions and cytokine responses in the CNS of different strains of mice. Intranasal inoculation of EHV-1 A4/72 and A9/92 induced acute and lethal meningoencephalitis in mice. Clinical and neurological signs appeared between the 2nd and 3rd dpi and included weight loss, ruffled fur, a hunched posture, crouching in corners, nasal and ocular discharges, dyspnoea, dehydration and increased salivation. These signs were followed by increased reactivity to external stimulation, seizures, recumbency and death. The virus was consistently recovered from the CNS and visceral organs of all mice with neurological symptoms. Histopathological changes consisted of leptomeningitis, focal hemorrhage, ventriculitis, neuronal degeneration and necrosis, neuronophagia, non-suppurative inflammation, multi-focal gliosis and perivascular infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells. Immunohistochemical examination demonstrated that EHV-1 strains A4/72 and A9/92 replicated in neurons of the olfactory bulb, cortical regions and hippocampus. In contrast, mice inoculated with the EHV-1 strain A3/97 showed neither weight loss nor apparent clinical or neurological signs of the disease; however, the virus was recovered from their lungs at 3 dpi. While EHV-1 strains A4/72 and A9/92 exhibited a high degree of tropism for the CNS with robust neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence, the EHV-1 strain A3/97 was not neurovirulent despite being detected in the CNS of infected BALB/c nude mice. Increased mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL2 were detected in the nervous tissue of EHV-1 infected mice at 2 and 3 dpi; however, IFN-γ mRNA was not consistently expressed. Mice with the background C57BL/6, which exhibit predominantly Th1-type responses, showed the highest levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL-2 mRNA in the CNS, when compared to BALB/c mice. The severity of signs observed in infected mice could be correlated with the peak of these proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and the chemokine CCL2, which are produced early after viral infection by both cells infiltrating into the CNS from the periphery and/or glial resident cells. These findings indicate that several inbred mouse strains are susceptible to neuopathogenic EHV-1 strains and should be useful models for studying the pathogenesis and mechanisms contributing to equine herpes myeloencephalopathy in horses.

O herpesvirus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) é um importante patógeno que causa doença respiratória, abortamento e desordens neurológicas em equinos. O presente estudo foi realizado visando estabelecer um modelo murino de infecção pelo EHV-1 para investigar a resposta do hospedeiro frente à infecção viral e as alterações neurológicas causadas por esse agente. Camundongos das linhagens BALB/c, BALB/c nude, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6, C57BL/6 CD4-/- e C57BL/6 CD8-/- foram inoculados por via intranasal com as estirpes brasileiras A4/72, A9/92 e A3/97 do EHV-1. Neste estudo, associou-se a histopatologia, a imunoistoquímica e o método de transcrição reversa seguida pela PCR quantitativa em tempo real para investigar a relação entre a infecção pelo vírus com o desenvolvimento de lesões e a resposta de citocinas pró-inflamatórias no SNC de camundongos das diferentes linhagens. As estirpes brasileiras A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 causaram infecção aguda e letal nas diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos. Os sinais clínicos e neurológicos, tais como perda de peso, pelos arrepiados, postura arqueada, apatia, descarga nasal e ocular, dispnéia, desidratação e sialorréia apareceram entre o 2º e 3º dpi. Essas manifestações foram acompanhadas pelo aumento da sensibilidade a estímulos externos, convulsões, recumbência e morte. O vírus foi consistentemente isolado do SNC, pulmões, fígado, baço e timo de todos os camundongos com sinais neurológicos. As alterações histopatológicas consistiram de leptomeningite, hemorragia focal, ventriculite, degeneração e necrose neuronal, neuronofagia, inflamação não supurativa, gliose multifocal e infiltração perivascular de células polimorfonucleares e mononucleares. A análise imunoistoquímica demonstrou que as estirpes A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 replicaram-se nos neurônicos do bulbo olfatório, cortex cerebral e no hipocampo. Ao contrário, os camundongos inoculados com a estirpe A3/97 do EHV-1 não apresentaram perda de peso ou quaisquer sinais clínicos ou neurológicos; entretanto, o vírus foi isolado dos pulmões no 3º dpi. As estirpes A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 apresentaram tropismo pelo tecido nervoso com capacidade de neuroinvasão e neurovirulência. A estirpe A3/97 do EHV-1 não foi neurovirulenta, apesar de ter sido reisolada do SNC de camundongos BALB/c nude infectados. Detectou-se aumento da expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2 no SNC dos camundongos infectados pelo EHV-1 com 2 e 3 dpi; entretanto, não houve expressão de mRNA para IFN-γ. Os camundongos com o fundo genético C57BL/6, que apresentam predominantemente resposta do tipo Th1, mostraram níveis mais altos de expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2, quando comparados com os BALB/c. A gravidade dos sinais observados em camundongos infectados pode ser correlacionada com o pico destas citocinas pró-inflamatórias (TNF-α e IL-6) e da quimiocina CCL2, que são produzidas logo após a infecção viral por células residentes da glia e/ou infiltrativas no SNC. Esses achados indicam que as diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos são susceptíveis a infecção por estirpes neuropatogênicas do EHV-1 e poderiam servir como modelo para o estudo da patogênese e dos mecanismos que contribuem no desenvolvimento da mieloencefalopatia herpética equina. / Equid herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a major pathogen which causes respiratory disease, abortions and neurological disorders in horses. The present study was carried out to establish a murine model of EHV-1 infection and investigate host response against the virus and neurological disorders caused by this pathogen. BALB/c, BALB/c nude, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6, C57BL/6 CD4-/- and C57BL/6 CD8-/- mice were intranasally inoculated with EHV-1 A4/72, A9/92 and A3/97 Brazilian strains. In this study, we combined histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and a quantitative real-time RT-PCR method to investigate the relationship between virus infection and the development of lesions and cytokine responses in the CNS of different strains of mice. Intranasal inoculation of EHV-1 A4/72 and A9/92 induced acute and lethal meningoencephalitis in mice. Clinical and neurological signs appeared between the 2nd and 3rd dpi and included weight loss, ruffled fur, a hunched posture, crouching in corners, nasal and ocular discharges, dyspnoea, dehydration and increased salivation. These signs were followed by increased reactivity to external stimulation, seizures, recumbency and death. The virus was consistently recovered from the CNS and visceral organs of all mice with neurological symptoms. Histopathological changes consisted of leptomeningitis, focal hemorrhage, ventriculitis, neuronal degeneration and necrosis, neuronophagia, non-suppurative inflammation, multi-focal gliosis and perivascular infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells. Immunohistochemical examination demonstrated that EHV-1 strains A4/72 and A9/92 replicated in neurons of the olfactory bulb, cortical regions and hippocampus. In contrast, mice inoculated with the EHV-1 strain A3/97 showed neither weight loss nor apparent clinical or neurological signs of the disease; however, the virus was recovered from their lungs at 3 dpi. While EHV-1 strains A4/72 and A9/92 exhibited a high degree of tropism for the CNS with robust neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence, the EHV-1 strain A3/97 was not neurovirulent despite being detected in the CNS of infected BALB/c nude mice. Increased mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL2 were detected in the nervous tissue of EHV-1 infected mice at 2 and 3 dpi; however, IFN-γ mRNA was not consistently expressed. Mice with the background C57BL/6, which exhibit predominantly Th1-type responses, showed the highest levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL-2 mRNA in the CNS, when compared to BALB/c mice. The severity of signs observed in infected mice could be correlated with the peak of these proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and the chemokine CCL2, which are produced early after viral infection by both cells infiltrating into the CNS from the periphery and/or glial resident cells. These findings indicate that several inbred mouse strains are susceptible to neuopathogenic EHV-1 strains and should be useful models for studying the pathogenesis and mechanisms contributing to equine herpes myeloencephalopathy in horses.

Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) can cause acute upper respiratory tract disease, abortion, neonatal death and neurological disease in horses. Rapid, accurate and timely diagnosis of EHV-1 infection in horses is important to curtail the spread of this pathogen. It has been reported that the neuropathogenic phenotype of EHV-1 can result from a single non-synonymous nucleotide substitution at position 2254 (A→G2254) in open reading frame 30 (ORF30). This was the basis for the development of an allelic discrimination, real-time PCR assay to distinguish between potential neuropathogenic and non-neuropathogenic EHV-1 strains. However, PCR analysis of a panel of EHV-1 abortion isolates revealed that other point mutations within ORF30 could produce false negative results with this previously described assay. Therefore, one of the objectives of this dissertation project was to develop a more sensitive and specific allelic discrimination real-time PCR assay for the detection of EHV-1. This was achieved by redesigning the primers and probes targeting ORF30. The new assay was ten times more sensitive than the original assay, with a lower detection limit of 10 infectious virus particles. While mutations within EHV-1’s genome can hinder diagnosis, they can also impact the virulence of the virus. Objective two, therefore, was to determine if sequential cell passage of T953 would induce sufficient attenuation of the EHV-1 genome to produce a low virulence phenotype. Two separate groups of 28 BALB/c mice were inoculated with either the parental strain or passage 135 (T953 P135) of EHV-1 strain T953. The animals were observed for fourteen days, euthanized and their tissues analyzed for the presence of EHV-1. At the conclusion of the fourteen day observation period, all of the mice infected with T953 P135 survived and regained their pre-inoculation body condition. Furthermore, there were significant differences in virus titer and viral DNA concentrations between T953 P135 and the parental strain, further confirming the attenuated phenotype of the virus. Taken together, data from this study clearly demonstrates that sequential cell culture passage of the neuropathogenic T953 strain of EHV-1 results in attenuation for young adult BALB/C mice.

O herpesvirus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) é um importante patógeno que causa doença respiratória, abortamento e desordens neurológicas em equinos. O presente estudo foi realizado visando avaliar a resposta inflamatória causada pelo EHV-1 por meio da análise das manifestações clínicas, alterações histopatológicas e resposta imune do hospedeiro no sistema nervoso central (SNC). Camundongos das linhagens BALB/c (H2d), C57BL/6 (H2b) e C3H/HeJ (H2k) foram inoculados por via intranasal com as estirpes brasileiras A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1. Nesse estudo, associou-se a histopatologia, a resposta de citocinas pró-inflamatórias no SNC de camundongos das diferentes linhagens e o método de transcrição reversa seguida pela reação em cadeia da polimerase quantitativa em tempo real (RT-qPCR) para investigar a relação entre a infecção pelo EHV-1 e a resposta inflamatória com o desenvolvimento de lesões. As estirpes brasileiras A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 causaram infecção aguda e letal nas diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos. Os sinais clínicos e neurológicos, tais como perda de peso, pelos arrepiados, postura arqueada, apatia, dispneia, desidratação e sialorreia apareceram entre o 2º e 3º dia pós-infecção (dpi). Essas manifestações foram acompanhadas pelo aumento da sensibilidade a estímulos externos, convulsões, recumbência e morte. As alterações histopatológicas consistiram em necrose neuronal, edema, necrose de liquefação, leptomeningite neutrofílica, manguito perivascular, hemorragia focal, inflamação não supurativa, gliose multifocal e infiltração perivascular de células polimorfonucleares e mononucleares. As características e a extensão das lesões variaram entre as linhagens de camundongos. Animais inoculados com a estirpe A4/72 apresentaram lesões histopatológicas de maior grau de severidade quando comparados com aqueles inoculados com a estirpe A9/92. Observou-se aumento da concentração plasmática de TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2 e IFN-γ nos camundongos infectados pelo EHV-1 no 2º dpi. Detectou-se aumento da concentração plasmática e da expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2 no SNC dos camundongos infectados pelo EHV-1 no 3º dpi; entretanto, não houve aumento da concentração plasmática nem da expressão de mRNA para IFN-γ no 3º dpi. Evidenciou-se que a estirpe A4/72 do EHV-1 induz uma resposta imune sistêmica mais efetiva, enquanto que o vírus A9/92 culmina em uma resposta imunológica mais efetiva no SNC. Os camundongos com o fundo genético C57BL/6 e BALB/c mostraram níveis mais altos de expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2, quando comparados com os C3H/HeJ. A gravidade dos sinais clínicos observados em camundongos infectados pode ser correlacionada com o pico dessas citocinas pró-inflamatórias (TNF-α e IL-6) e da quimiocina CCL2, que são produzidas logo após a infecção viral por células residentes da glia e/ou infiltrativas no SNC. Esses achados indicam que as diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos são susceptíveis à infecção por estirpes neuropatogênicas do EHV-1; as diferenças no padrão de alterações histopatológicas mostram que elas dependem do hospedeiro infectado, da estirpe viral e da resposta imunológica; e a supressão do interferon (IFN) tipo 1 sugere ser um mecanismo de escape do EHV-1 frente ao sistema imune. A baixa expressão de IL-6, TNF-α e da quimiocina CCL2 em camundongos C3H/HeJ se explica pela mutação no gene toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) existente nessa linhagem de camundongo. Adicionalmente, os camundongos C3H/HeJ apresentaram lesões histopatológicas mais severas no SNC quando comparados com BALB/c e C57BL/6. Sugere-se que o IFN tipo I e o gene TLR-4 apresentam importante papel na patogênese do EHV-1 bem como proteínas do agente viral responsáveis pela supressão do IFN e partículas virais que sejam reconhecidas pelo TLR-4 podem ser alvos para o desenvolvimento de novas abordagens para o tratamento da doença viral e para a eficiência de imunógenos / The equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is an important pathogen that causes respiratory disease, abortion and neurological disorders in horses. This study was conducted to evaluate the inflammatory response caused by EHV-1 by the analysis of clinical manifestations, histopathological changes and the host immune response in the central nervous system (CNS). BALB/c (H2d), C57BL/6 (H2b) and C3H/HeJ (H2k) mice were inoculated intranasally with Brazilian EHV-1 strains A4/72 and A9/92. In this study, joined histopathology, the response of proinflammatory cytokines in the CNS of mice of different strains and reverse transcription method followed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in real time (RT-qPCR) to investigate the relationship between infection by EHV-1 and inflammatory response in the development of lesions. Brazilian strains A4/72 and A9/92 EHV-1 caused acute lethal infection in different strains of inbred mice. Clinical and neurological signs such as weight loss, the bristly hair, hunched posture, apathy, dyspnoea, dehydration and salivary hypersecretion appeared between 2nd and 3rd day after infection (dpi). These events were accompanied by increase in the sensitivity to external stimuli, convulsions, recumbency and death. Histopathological changes were neuronal necrosis, edema, liquefaction necrosis, neutrophilic leptomeningitis, perivascular cuff, focal hemorrhage, non-suppurative inflammation, multifocal gliosis and perivascular infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells. The characteristics and the extent of the injuries varied between strains of mice. Animals inoculated with the A4/72 strain showed histopathological lesions of greater severity when compared with those inoculated with the A9/92 strain. There was an increase in plasma concentrations of TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2 and IFN-γ in mice infected by EHV-1 in 2nd dpi. Plasma concentrations and the expression of mRNA for TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL2 in the CNS of mice infected with EHV-1 at 3rd dpi were increased; however, there was no increase in plasma concentration or expression for the mRNA of IFN-γ at 3rd dpi. It was evident that the EHV-1 strain A4/72 induces a more effective systemic immune response, whereas the A9/92 virus culminates in a more effective immune response in the CNS. The C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice showed higher levels of mRNA expression for TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL2, compared to C3H/HeJ mice. The severity of clinical signs observed in infected mice can be correlated with the peak of these proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and CCL2 chemokine, which are then produced after viral infection by resident glial cells and/or infiltrative cells in the CNS. These findings indicate that different strains of inbred mice are susceptible to infection neuropathogenic EHV-1 strains; the differences in the pattern of pathological changes show that they depend on the infected host, the EHV-1 strain and the immune response; and the suppression of interferon (IFN) type I suggested to be an escape mechanism for the EHV-1 against the immune system. The low expression of IL-6, TNF-α and chemokine CCL2 in C3H/HeJ mice can be explained by a mutation in toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) gene existing in this mouse strain. Additionally, C3H/HeJ mice exhibited more severe histopathological lesions in the CNS as compared to BALB/c and C57BL/6. It is suggested that type I IFN and TLR-4 gene have important role in the pathogenesis of EHV-1 and viral agent proteins responsible for the suppression of IFN and the viral particles that are recognized by TLR-4 can be targets for the development of new approaches for the treatment of viral disease and the efficiency of immunogens

Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar as alterações respiratórias e neurológicas resultantes da infecção por via intranasal das diferentes estirpes nacionais do herpesvírus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) em hamsters comparando sua susceptibilidade com estudos sobre infecção do EHV-1 em camundongos e equinos. Para isso, hamsters sírios machos, três semanas de idade, foram infectados por via intranasal com as estirpes do EHV-1 obtidas a partir de fetos abortados e potro neonato infectados (A4/72, A9/92, A3/97 e Iso/72). Os animais foram pesados e examinados diariamente em busca de sinais clínicos e neurológicos. Conforme os sintomas neurológicos apareceram, grupos de cinco hamsters foram eutanasiados por overdose de isoflurano na primeira etapa do projeto, e, de cetamina/xilazina por via intraperitoneal na segunda etapa. Na necropsia, sistema nervoso central (SNC), pulmão, fígado, baço e timo foram coletados para isolamento viral em cultura de células E-dermal e para análise histopatológica. Na segunda etapa do projeto, a lavagem broncoalveolar (LBA) com 3 ml de PBS por hamsters foi realizada para determinar a resposta inflamatória pulmonar através da contagem total e diferencial de leucócitos. Similar aos experimentos com camundongos, hamsters desafiados com as estirpes virais A4/72 e A9/92 apresentaram manifestações clínicas severas no terceiro dia pós-inoculação (dpi), tais como perda de peso aguda, dispnéia, desidratação, decúbito e morte. Observou-se também sinais neurológicos como hiperexcitabilidade, paralisia, espasmos, perda de propriocepção, andar em círculos e convulsões. Ao contrário dos camundongos, que não desenvolveram a doença; hamsters inoculados com as estirpes virais A3/97 e Iso/72 manifestaram sintomas respiratórios e neurológicos agudos entre quarto e quinto dpi, sendo as alterações respiratórias as mais evidentes, principalmente hemoptise e conjuntivite. O isolamento do vírus a partir do SNC foi positivo em todos os animais infectados; no entanto, todas as amostras de pulmões foram positivas apenas nos grupos infectado pelas estirpes virais A9/92 e A4/72. Todas as estirpes do EHV-1 foram isoladas a partir do baço, no entanto, a partir do timo foram isoladas apenas as estirpes A9/92 e A4/72, e, de fígado somente a estirpe viral Iso/72 não foi isolada. No LBA, a contagem total de leucócitos não demonstrou diferenças de valores significativas entre os grupos experimentais, sendo apenas evidente a presença de eritrócitos, macrófagos e neutrófilos na maioria dos esfregaços dos hamsters infectados. Porém, na contagem diferencial de leucócitos observou-se um aumento significativo de neutrófilo com consequente diminuição significativa de macrófagos nos hamsters infectados pelas estirpes virais A3/97, Iso/72 e A4/72 quando comparados ao grupo controle. Os hamsters infectados pela estirpe viral A9/92 mantiveram valores próximos aos do grupo controle. Ao avaliar microscopicamente o SNC, fígado e pulmão dos hamsters infectados foi observado infiltrado inflamatório, necrose e manguito perivascular em SNC; leucocitose e necrose no parênquima hepático com discreta pericolangite e proliferação de ducto biliar; e em pulmão observou inflamação, necrose, edema e hemorragia em bronquíolos e alvéolos. Concluindo, os resultados apontaram o hamster como a espécie mais susceptível à infecção pelo EHV-1 servindo como um modelo experimental complementar para estudos de doenças respiratória e neurológica provocadas por este agente em equinos / This study aimed to evaluate the respiratory and neurological disorders resulting from intranasal infection with different national strains of equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) in hamsters comparing their susceptibility to studies about EHV-1 infection in mice and horses. Therefore, male Syrian hamsters, three weeks of age, were infected via intransal with EHV-1 strains obtained from aborted fetuses and neonatal foal infected (A4/72, A9/92, A3/97 and Iso/72). The animals were weighed and examined daily for clinical search and neurological signs. As neurological symptoms appeared five hamsters groups were euthanized by isoflurane overdose in the first stage of the project, and ketamine/xylazine via intraperitoneal in the second stage. At necropsy, central nervous system (CNS), lung, liver, spleen and thymus were collected for virus isolation in E-dermal cell culture and histopathological analysis. In the second stage of the project, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) with 3 ml of PBS per hamsters was performed to determine the pulmonary inflammatory response through the total and differential leukocyte count. Similar to the experiments with mice, hamsters challenged with viral strains A4/72 and A9/92 had severe clinical manifestations in the third day post-inoculation (dpi), such as acute weight loss, dyspnea, dehydration, recumbency, and death. It was also observed neurological signs such as hyperexcitability, paralysis, spasms, loss of proprioception, circling and convulsions. Unlike mice, which did not develop disease; hamsters inoculated with viral strains A3/97 and Iso/72 showed acute respiratory and neurological symptoms between fourth and fifth dpi, and the most evident respiratory distress was hemoptysis and conjunctivitis. The virus isolation from CNS was positive in all infected animals; however, all lung samples were positive only in groups infected by A9/92 and A4/72 viral strains. All EHV-1 strains were recovered from spleen, however, only A9/92 and A4/72 viral strains were recovered from thymus, but only Iso/72 viral strain was not recovered from liver. BAL total leukocyte count showed no significant differences in values between the experimental groups but the presence of erythrocytes, macrophages and neutrophils were evident in most smears of infected hamsters. However, in the leukocyte differential count it was observed a significant increase in neutrophils with consequent significant reduction of macrophages in hamsters infected by viral strains A3/97, Iso/72 and A9/92 when compared with the control group. Hamsters infected with the A9/92 viral strain maintained values similar to the control group. When evaluating microscopically the CNS, liver and lungs of infected hamsters it was observed inflammatory infiltrate, necrosis and perivascular cuff in CNS; leukocytosis and necrosis in the liver parenchyma with discrete pericholangitis and bile duct proliferation; and inflammation, necrosis, edema and hemorrhage in the bronchioles and alveoli. Concluding, the results showed the hamster as the most susceptible species to EHV-1 infection serving as a complementary experimental model for studies of respiratory and neurological diseases caused by this agent in horses

Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar as alterações respiratórias e neurológicas resultantes da infecção por via intranasal das diferentes estirpes nacionais do herpesvírus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) em hamsters comparando sua susceptibilidade com estudos sobre infecção do EHV-1 em camundongos e equinos. Para isso, hamsters sírios machos, três semanas de idade, foram infectados por via intranasal com as estirpes do EHV-1 obtidas a partir de fetos abortados e potro neonato infectados (A4/72, A9/92, A3/97 e Iso/72). Os animais foram pesados e examinados diariamente em busca de sinais clínicos e neurológicos. Conforme os sintomas neurológicos apareceram, grupos de cinco hamsters foram eutanasiados por overdose de isoflurano na primeira etapa do projeto, e, de cetamina/xilazina por via intraperitoneal na segunda etapa. Na necropsia, sistema nervoso central (SNC), pulmão, fígado, baço e timo foram coletados para isolamento viral em cultura de células E-dermal e para análise histopatológica. Na segunda etapa do projeto, a lavagem broncoalveolar (LBA) com 3 ml de PBS por hamsters foi realizada para determinar a resposta inflamatória pulmonar através da contagem total e diferencial de leucócitos. Similar aos experimentos com camundongos, hamsters desafiados com as estirpes virais A4/72 e A9/92 apresentaram manifestações clínicas severas no terceiro dia pós-inoculação (dpi), tais como perda de peso aguda, dispnéia, desidratação, decúbito e morte. Observou-se também sinais neurológicos como hiperexcitabilidade, paralisia, espasmos, perda de propriocepção, andar em círculos e convulsões. Ao contrário dos camundongos, que não desenvolveram a doença; hamsters inoculados com as estirpes virais A3/97 e Iso/72 manifestaram sintomas respiratórios e neurológicos agudos entre quarto e quinto dpi, sendo as alterações respiratórias as mais evidentes, principalmente hemoptise e conjuntivite. O isolamento do vírus a partir do SNC foi positivo em todos os animais infectados; no entanto, todas as amostras de pulmões foram positivas apenas nos grupos infectado pelas estirpes virais A9/92 e A4/72. Todas as estirpes do EHV-1 foram isoladas a partir do baço, no entanto, a partir do timo foram isoladas apenas as estirpes A9/92 e A4/72, e, de fígado somente a estirpe viral Iso/72 não foi isolada. No LBA, a contagem total de leucócitos não demonstrou diferenças de valores significativas entre os grupos experimentais, sendo apenas evidente a presença de eritrócitos, macrófagos e neutrófilos na maioria dos esfregaços dos hamsters infectados. Porém, na contagem diferencial de leucócitos observou-se um aumento significativo de neutrófilo com consequente diminuição significativa de macrófagos nos hamsters infectados pelas estirpes virais A3/97, Iso/72 e A4/72 quando comparados ao grupo controle. Os hamsters infectados pela estirpe viral A9/92 mantiveram valores próximos aos do grupo controle. Ao avaliar microscopicamente o SNC, fígado e pulmão dos hamsters infectados foi observado infiltrado inflamatório, necrose e manguito perivascular em SNC; leucocitose e necrose no parênquima hepático com discreta pericolangite e proliferação de ducto biliar; e em pulmão observou inflamação, necrose, edema e hemorragia em bronquíolos e alvéolos. Concluindo, os resultados apontaram o hamster como a espécie mais susceptível à infecção pelo EHV-1 servindo como um modelo experimental complementar para estudos de doenças respiratória e neurológica provocadas por este agente em equinos / This study aimed to evaluate the respiratory and neurological disorders resulting from intranasal infection with different national strains of equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) in hamsters comparing their susceptibility to studies about EHV-1 infection in mice and horses. Therefore, male Syrian hamsters, three weeks of age, were infected via intransal with EHV-1 strains obtained from aborted fetuses and neonatal foal infected (A4/72, A9/92, A3/97 and Iso/72). The animals were weighed and examined daily for clinical search and neurological signs. As neurological symptoms appeared five hamsters groups were euthanized by isoflurane overdose in the first stage of the project, and ketamine/xylazine via intraperitoneal in the second stage. At necropsy, central nervous system (CNS), lung, liver, spleen and thymus were collected for virus isolation in E-dermal cell culture and histopathological analysis. In the second stage of the project, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) with 3 ml of PBS per hamsters was performed to determine the pulmonary inflammatory response through the total and differential leukocyte count. Similar to the experiments with mice, hamsters challenged with viral strains A4/72 and A9/92 had severe clinical manifestations in the third day post-inoculation (dpi), such as acute weight loss, dyspnea, dehydration, recumbency, and death. It was also observed neurological signs such as hyperexcitability, paralysis, spasms, loss of proprioception, circling and convulsions. Unlike mice, which did not develop disease; hamsters inoculated with viral strains A3/97 and Iso/72 showed acute respiratory and neurological symptoms between fourth and fifth dpi, and the most evident respiratory distress was hemoptysis and conjunctivitis. The virus isolation from CNS was positive in all infected animals; however, all lung samples were positive only in groups infected by A9/92 and A4/72 viral strains. All EHV-1 strains were recovered from spleen, however, only A9/92 and A4/72 viral strains were recovered from thymus, but only Iso/72 viral strain was not recovered from liver. BAL total leukocyte count showed no significant differences in values between the experimental groups but the presence of erythrocytes, macrophages and neutrophils were evident in most smears of infected hamsters. However, in the leukocyte differential count it was observed a significant increase in neutrophils with consequent significant reduction of macrophages in hamsters infected by viral strains A3/97, Iso/72 and A9/92 when compared with the control group. Hamsters infected with the A9/92 viral strain maintained values similar to the control group. When evaluating microscopically the CNS, liver and lungs of infected hamsters it was observed inflammatory infiltrate, necrosis and perivascular cuff in CNS; leukocytosis and necrosis in the liver parenchyma with discrete pericholangitis and bile duct proliferation; and inflammation, necrosis, edema and hemorrhage in the bronchioles and alveoli. Concluding, the results showed the hamster as the most susceptible species to EHV-1 infection serving as a complementary experimental model for studies of respiratory and neurological diseases caused by this agent in horses

O herpesvirus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) é um importante patógeno que causa doença respiratória, abortamento e desordens neurológicas em equinos. O presente estudo foi realizado visando avaliar a resposta inflamatória causada pelo EHV-1 por meio da análise das manifestações clínicas, alterações histopatológicas e resposta imune do hospedeiro no sistema nervoso central (SNC). Camundongos das linhagens BALB/c (H2d), C57BL/6 (H2b) e C3H/HeJ (H2k) foram inoculados por via intranasal com as estirpes brasileiras A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1. Nesse estudo, associou-se a histopatologia, a resposta de citocinas pró-inflamatórias no SNC de camundongos das diferentes linhagens e o método de transcrição reversa seguida pela reação em cadeia da polimerase quantitativa em tempo real (RT-qPCR) para investigar a relação entre a infecção pelo EHV-1 e a resposta inflamatória com o desenvolvimento de lesões. As estirpes brasileiras A4/72 e A9/92 do EHV-1 causaram infecção aguda e letal nas diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos. Os sinais clínicos e neurológicos, tais como perda de peso, pelos arrepiados, postura arqueada, apatia, dispneia, desidratação e sialorreia apareceram entre o 2º e 3º dia pós-infecção (dpi). Essas manifestações foram acompanhadas pelo aumento da sensibilidade a estímulos externos, convulsões, recumbência e morte. As alterações histopatológicas consistiram em necrose neuronal, edema, necrose de liquefação, leptomeningite neutrofílica, manguito perivascular, hemorragia focal, inflamação não supurativa, gliose multifocal e infiltração perivascular de células polimorfonucleares e mononucleares. As características e a extensão das lesões variaram entre as linhagens de camundongos. Animais inoculados com a estirpe A4/72 apresentaram lesões histopatológicas de maior grau de severidade quando comparados com aqueles inoculados com a estirpe A9/92. Observou-se aumento da concentração plasmática de TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2 e IFN-γ nos camundongos infectados pelo EHV-1 no 2º dpi. Detectou-se aumento da concentração plasmática e da expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2 no SNC dos camundongos infectados pelo EHV-1 no 3º dpi; entretanto, não houve aumento da concentração plasmática nem da expressão de mRNA para IFN-γ no 3º dpi. Evidenciou-se que a estirpe A4/72 do EHV-1 induz uma resposta imune sistêmica mais efetiva, enquanto que o vírus A9/92 culmina em uma resposta imunológica mais efetiva no SNC. Os camundongos com o fundo genético C57BL/6 e BALB/c mostraram níveis mais altos de expressão de mRNA para TNF-α, IL-6 e CCL2, quando comparados com os C3H/HeJ. A gravidade dos sinais clínicos observados em camundongos infectados pode ser correlacionada com o pico dessas citocinas pró-inflamatórias (TNF-α e IL-6) e da quimiocina CCL2, que são produzidas logo após a infecção viral por células residentes da glia e/ou infiltrativas no SNC. Esses achados indicam que as diferentes linhagens de camundongos isogênicos são susceptíveis à infecção por estirpes neuropatogênicas do EHV-1; as diferenças no padrão de alterações histopatológicas mostram que elas dependem do hospedeiro infectado, da estirpe viral e da resposta imunológica; e a supressão do interferon (IFN) tipo 1 sugere ser um mecanismo de escape do EHV-1 frente ao sistema imune. A baixa expressão de IL-6, TNF-α e da quimiocina CCL2 em camundongos C3H/HeJ se explica pela mutação no gene toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) existente nessa linhagem de camundongo. Adicionalmente, os camundongos C3H/HeJ apresentaram lesões histopatológicas mais severas no SNC quando comparados com BALB/c e C57BL/6. Sugere-se que o IFN tipo I e o gene TLR-4 apresentam importante papel na patogênese do EHV-1 bem como proteínas do agente viral responsáveis pela supressão do IFN e partículas virais que sejam reconhecidas pelo TLR-4 podem ser alvos para o desenvolvimento de novas abordagens para o tratamento da doença viral e para a eficiência de imunógenos / The equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is an important pathogen that causes respiratory disease, abortion and neurological disorders in horses. This study was conducted to evaluate the inflammatory response caused by EHV-1 by the analysis of clinical manifestations, histopathological changes and the host immune response in the central nervous system (CNS). BALB/c (H2d), C57BL/6 (H2b) and C3H/HeJ (H2k) mice were inoculated intranasally with Brazilian EHV-1 strains A4/72 and A9/92. In this study, joined histopathology, the response of proinflammatory cytokines in the CNS of mice of different strains and reverse transcription method followed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in real time (RT-qPCR) to investigate the relationship between infection by EHV-1 and inflammatory response in the development of lesions. Brazilian strains A4/72 and A9/92 EHV-1 caused acute lethal infection in different strains of inbred mice. Clinical and neurological signs such as weight loss, the bristly hair, hunched posture, apathy, dyspnoea, dehydration and salivary hypersecretion appeared between 2nd and 3rd day after infection (dpi). These events were accompanied by increase in the sensitivity to external stimuli, convulsions, recumbency and death. Histopathological changes were neuronal necrosis, edema, liquefaction necrosis, neutrophilic leptomeningitis, perivascular cuff, focal hemorrhage, non-suppurative inflammation, multifocal gliosis and perivascular infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells. The characteristics and the extent of the injuries varied between strains of mice. Animals inoculated with the A4/72 strain showed histopathological lesions of greater severity when compared with those inoculated with the A9/92 strain. There was an increase in plasma concentrations of TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2 and IFN-γ in mice infected by EHV-1 in 2nd dpi. Plasma concentrations and the expression of mRNA for TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL2 in the CNS of mice infected with EHV-1 at 3rd dpi were increased; however, there was no increase in plasma concentration or expression for the mRNA of IFN-γ at 3rd dpi. It was evident that the EHV-1 strain A4/72 induces a more effective systemic immune response, whereas the A9/92 virus culminates in a more effective immune response in the CNS. The C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice showed higher levels of mRNA expression for TNF-α, IL-6 and CCL2, compared to C3H/HeJ mice. The severity of clinical signs observed in infected mice can be correlated with the peak of these proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and CCL2 chemokine, which are then produced after viral infection by resident glial cells and/or infiltrative cells in the CNS. These findings indicate that different strains of inbred mice are susceptible to infection neuropathogenic EHV-1 strains; the differences in the pattern of pathological changes show that they depend on the infected host, the EHV-1 strain and the immune response; and the suppression of interferon (IFN) type I suggested to be an escape mechanism for the EHV-1 against the immune system. The low expression of IL-6, TNF-α and chemokine CCL2 in C3H/HeJ mice can be explained by a mutation in toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) gene existing in this mouse strain. Additionally, C3H/HeJ mice exhibited more severe histopathological lesions in the CNS as compared to BALB/c and C57BL/6. It is suggested that type I IFN and TLR-4 gene have important role in the pathogenesis of EHV-1 and viral agent proteins responsible for the suppression of IFN and the viral particles that are recognized by TLR-4 can be targets for the development of new approaches for the treatment of viral disease and the efficiency of immunogens

Equine Herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a worldwide threat to the health of horses. It can cause mild respiratory disease, abortions and deaths of newborn foals as well as a potentially fatal neurologic disorder known as Equine Herpesvirus Myeloencephalopathy (EHM). The virus is maintained in populations by stress-induced periodic reactivation of virus in long-term latently infected horses and transmission of the reactivated virus to susceptible individuals. In horses, peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) are thought to be an important site for EHV-1 latent genomes. Since the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) is a cellular response to a variety of stressors that has been linked to reactivation of herpes simplex virus in humans, a virus closely related to EHV-1, I tested the hypothesis that latent EHV-1 relies on the UPR as a pluripotent stress sensor and uses it to reactivate lytic gene expression. Since little work has been done in defining the UPR in horses, I first successfully developed a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assay to detect and quantitate transcripts for selected UPR genes in equine dermal (E.Derm) cells and PBLs. Activation of the UPR was achieved in both cell types using thapsigargin and a difference in gene expression after activation of the UPR in two equine cell types was found. A nested PCR assay to detect and distinguish latent EHV-1 and EHV-4 was evaluated and the sensitivity of the technique to detect EHV-1 was determined. I discovered that the nested PCR technique was not sensitive enough to detect the estimated one latent viral genome in 50,000 PBLs. Lytic EHV-1 infection was characterized by single step growth curve in E.Derm cells and consistent detection of temporal EHV-1 gene expression by RT-qPCR was achieved. The relationship between EHV-1 gene expression and UPR gene expression during lytic infection was investigated. While EHV-1 infection had no effect on UPR gene expression, activation of the UPR appeared to decrease the expression of EHV-1 genes temporarily and reversibly during the first 4 h after infection. Finally, detection of EHV-1 in PBLs from horses presumed to be latently infected by co-cultivation with E. Derm cells permissive to EHV-1 infection was attempted. To detect viral DNA, PBLs were stimulated with thapsigargin or interleukin 2 (IL-2) which was previously reported to induce reactivation of latent EHV-1. I was not able to reproduce previously published experiments of reactivation in vitro of latent EHV-1 by stimulation with IL-2, and virus reactivation did not occur after stimulation of PBLs with thapsigargin. In summary, a RT-qPCR assay to measure the expression of equine UPR genes was developed and activation of the UPR by treatment of E.Derm cells and PBLs with thapsigargin was successfully achieved. A difference in gene expression after activation of the UPR in two equine cell types was found. In contrast to what has been reported for other alphaherpesviruses, there appears to be no, or only little, interaction between the UPR and EHV-1 during viral infection. Detection of latent EHV-1 genomes in PBLs was not achieved by using a nested PCR, as this technique was not sensitive enough to detect the estimated one latent viral genome in 50,000 PBLs. Finally, latent EHV-1 was not detected in presumed latently infected PBLs or reactivated by triggering the UPR in equine PBLs.