Esta dissertação apresenta uma metodologia de otimização do fluxo de potência em sistemas elétricos de subtransmissão utilizando duas técnicas da Computação Evolutiva, os Algoritmos Genéticos e as Estratégias Evolutivas. A metodologia decompõe o problema em duas partes e o trata seqüencialmente. A primeira parte procede com a otimização do fluxo de potência ativa e a segunda com a otimização do fluxo de potência reativa. São apresentadas as características e estruturas básicas dos Algoritmos Genéticos e das Estratégias Evolutivas. A técnica dos Algoritmos Genéticos é implementada no modelo de otimização do fluxo de potência ativa e a técnica das Estratégias Evolutivas no modelo de otimização do fluxo de potência reativa. As variáveis de controle dos modelos desenvolvidos são, respectivamente, os estados dos dispositivos de seccionamento e os níveis de tensão dos barramentos dos pontos de fronteira, associadas ao sistema analisado. Analisam-se os sistemas elétricos de subtransmissão que contêm múltiplos pontos de fronteira (conexão) com a Rede Básica e diversas possibilidades de configuração operativa. A metodologia proposta é aplicada a um sistema elétrico de subtransmissão real a fim de minimizar o custo dos encargos de uso dos sistemas de transmissão. Os resultados obtidos mostram a eficácia dos algoritmos desenvolvidos na busca das soluções desejadas. / This dissertation presents a power flow optimization methodology on subtransmission electric systems using two techniques of Evolutionary Computation, namely the Genetic Algorithms and the Evolution Strategies. The methodology splits the problem into two parts and treats it separately. On the first step it proceeds to optimize the active power flow and on the second step to optimize the reactive power flow. Characteristics and basic structures of the Genetic Algorithms and the Evolution Strategies are shown. The Genetic Algorithms technique is implemented on the active power flow optimization model and the Evolution Strategies technique on the reactive power flow optimization model. The control variables of developed models are, respectively, the switch states and the border point bar voltage levels, associated to the analyzed system. The subtransmission electric systems that have multiple border (connection) points to the Basic Network and many operative configuration possibilities are analyzed. The proposed methodology is applied to a real subtransmission electric system in order to minimizes the transmission system use duty costs. The obtained results show the efficacy of the developed algorithms in the search of desired solutions.

A Dissertação apresenta as principais mudanças verificadas no Setor Elétrico Brasileiro e os seus reflexos nas atividades de planejamento e estudos de mercado. Examina os desafios do mercado de energia para as distribuidoras de energia elétrica, advindos com o dinamismo comercial e as obrigações institucionais provenientes do novo contexto setorial. Evidencia que os estudos de mercado podem apoiar significativamente as distribuidoras, necessitando para tanto, efetuar mudanças estruturais e metodológicas. A utilização de modelos baseados em usos finais de energia e técnicas de cenários é a mais adequada. / After the restructuring of the Brazilian power sector during the 1990’s, a new set of rules and players (regulators, traders, etc.) was introduced. This situation resulted in significantly impacting the distribution companies in terms of market risks and commercial opportunities. Electric power market assessments that provide fundamental information to the system and tariff planning groups can also be used to support the distribution companies in analyzing various questions within the new rules that have been created. These questions include such items as: How much energy should be contracted in the future in the wholesale market? How much opportunity is available in offering commercial services to the customer? This work describes the main changes that have occurred due to the restructuring, such as: the privatization process, a wholesale market implementation, rules for energy trading, and planning and regulatory process. The main challenges for distribution companies as a result of these changes are identified, especially focusing on energy trading in retail and wholesale markets. The process of electric power market assessments is presented and describing the accepted methodology used for demand forecasting for distribution companies. Information required by distribution companies in order to deal with the market challenges are specified – e.g. energy trading, market risks and customer relationship. It is concluded there is a need to obtain detailed information about consumers and to develop market forecast for specific time frame. It must take into consideration all the issues around the retail market – the study needs to analyze the basic factors that impact customer consumption. In order to improve the electric market assessment, it has been useful to apply specific models. After reviewing the existing tools for electric power market assessments (analysis and forecast), it has been found that the models that combined methods of end use analysis with scenario analysis are most effective. In this way, the distribution companies needs are met and the process also results in better market data for planning and regulatory agencies.

Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, exploratório sobre a técnica da modelagem de objetos aplicados como interface de comunicação entre os equipamentos de campo de uma subestação elétrica, utilizando o padrão “Utility Communications Architecture - Generic Object Models for Substation & Feeder Equipment" que permite a redução da quantidade de protocolos com os quais trabalham os diferentes equipamentos de campo de uma subestação em geral. A pesquisa procurou explicar quais são as características de uma subestação automatizada (requisitos e comportamento), em que consiste essa nova tecnologia da modelagem de objetos e suas aplicações dentro dos sistemas elétricos. O trabalho explica e aplica os diferentes modelos contidos no padrão dentro das funções de proteção, medição, controle, etc, de uma Subestação Elétrica. Estes modelos são incluídos nos novos equipamentos que levam a informação dos sensores e atuadores colocados nos equipamentos de campo a seu respectivo sistema “Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition". Os novos equipamentos permitem realizar tarefas como sistema de eleição “voting", função de bloqueio de barramento “bus blocking", função de rejeição de carga “load shedding", entre outros, de uma maneira mais eficaz aumentando, assim o desempenho do trabalho da subestação. Como aplicação final, trata de fazer a modelagem de comunicação dos equipamentos de campo da subestação de Bateias, da Companhia Paranaense de Energia com o emprego dos equipamentos providos pelos principais fornecedores do mercado brasileiro: General Electric, Siemens e ABB; tendo para isso como esquemas de referência os modelos das subestações apresentadas na bibliografia. A modelagem demonstrou ser eficaz na comunicação dos equipamentos de campo de uma Subestação Elétrica, já que é possível mediante a mesma padronizar os protocolos que utiliza, permitindo assim a compatibilidade entre os equipamentos de diferentes fabricantes com a respectiva redução dos custos dos projetos de implementação, programação e treinamento dentro da subestação. / This is a descriptive study concerning the modeling technique applying object-oriented models for a communication interface among the equipments in the field of an electric substation. The standard architecture UCA - Utility Communications Architecture and GOMSFE - Generic Object Models for Substation & Feeder Equipment are used, allowing the reduction of the number of protocols in the different equipment's in the yard. This work also addresses the characteristics and the requisites of an automated substation, in what this new modeling technology is about and its applications for the electric power systems. The different models used for the functions of protection, measurement, control, etc. of an Electric Substation are considered, including the new equipment which carry the information from sensors and actuators in the field to their respective SCADA - Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition - system. The performance of the substation is enhanced by new functions as “voting" in protection relays, “bus blocking" in busbars, "load shedding" in load dispatch. Finally the modeling of the communication functions of the field equipments in the substation Bateias, of Copel - Companhia Paranaense de Energia Elétrica is carried out. The equipment's are the ones found in the Brazilian electric market and the reference schemes are from the bibliography. It is shown that the modeling is effective for the communication among the equipment's in the field of an electric substation, and that it is possible to standardize the different protocols employed there. Consequently the compatibility among the equipment's from different manufacturers occurs, and also the reduction of the costs of implementation, programming and personnel training within the substation.

Dans le contexte de la transition énergétique, il existe des inconnues liées à la fonctionnalité du réseau électrique futur avec l’augmentation de la consommation et l’introduction de nouvelles formes de production. L’adaptation du système actuel est inévitable, néanmoins, les solutions efficaces sont difficiles à définir. Les stratégies actuelles de la planification du réseau de distribution ne répondent pas précisément aux problématiques des nouvelles productions décentralisées, le changement du profil de la consommation, l’automation du réseau de distribution avec de nouvelles stratégies de gestion du réseau ainsi que la déréglementation du marché de l’électricité. De plus, la visibilité et la contrôlabilité du réseau de distribution est limité, l’implémentation d’une gestion active optimale n’est pas à présent une réalité. L’évaluation du réseau intelligent est critique pour comparer aux solutions traditionnelles.L’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’explorer les barrières technico-économiques pour l’intégration massive des énergies renouvelables sur le réseau de distribution. Cette thèse explore plusieurs solutions au travers d’algorithmes d’optimisation de type flux de puissance qui utilisent des relaxations convexes. Pour le cas du réseau électrique basse tension, des systèmes triphasés déséquilibrés sont considérés. Pour analyser les incertitudes associées avec la génération et la demande, des algorithmes stochastiques sont abordés. Ces outils sont utilisés pour i) l’optimisation de l’emplacement et le dimensionnement des batteries, ii) l’optimisation des stratégies de gestion de la demande, iii) l’évaluation des stratégies d’opération de flexibilité du réseau centralisé et aussi décentralisé et iv) étudier l’impact de différents scénarios de pénétration des énergies renouvelables sur les réseaux existants. / In the context of the energy transition, there are many unknowns related to the required capabilities of future electric distribution systems to meet the growing electric load and new forms of electric production. The transformation of current electric distribution systems is inevitable, however, the most cost-effective investments are difficult to evaluate. Current electric distribution grid planning strategies are inadequate to take into account the accommodation of massive decentralized production, increased electric load with higher volatility, automation of distribution grids and unbundling of electricity markets. Due to a lack of observability and controllability in the distribution grid, the feasibility of optimal power flow management is not currently a reality. The quantification of smart distribution grids is critical to evaluate the added benefit of this solution in comparison to infrastructure upgrades.The primary objective of my PhD is to explore the techno-economical barriers of massive renewable energy integration into the distribution grid. This thesis will explore different solutions through convex relaxations of optimal power flow analysis. For the low voltage distribution grid case, three-phase unbalanced power flow analysis is considered. In order to consider realistically the uncertainties related to renewable generation and demand, stochastic optimal power flow (OPF) algorithms are proposed. These tools are used among others to i) optimize placement and sizing of grid connected storage, ii) optimize demand response strategies, iii) study different operation strategies for storage devices including centralized and decentralized ones and iv) study the impact of different renewable energy integration scenarios into real-world distribution grids.

Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, exploratório sobre a técnica da modelagem de objetos aplicados como interface de comunicação entre os equipamentos de campo de uma subestação elétrica, utilizando o padrão “Utility Communications Architecture - Generic Object Models for Substation & Feeder Equipment” que permite a redução da quantidade de protocolos com os quais trabalham os diferentes equipamentos de campo de uma subestação em geral. A pesquisa procurou explicar quais são as características de uma subestação automatizada (requisitos e comportamento), em que consiste essa nova tecnologia da modelagem de objetos e suas aplicações dentro dos sistemas elétricos. O trabalho explica e aplica os diferentes modelos contidos no padrão dentro das funções de proteção, medição, controle, etc, de uma Subestação Elétrica. Estes modelos são incluídos nos novos equipamentos que levam a informação dos sensores e atuadores colocados nos equipamentos de campo a seu respectivo sistema “Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition”. Os novos equipamentos permitem realizar tarefas como sistema de eleição “voting”, função de bloqueio de barramento “bus blocking”, função de rejeição de carga “load shedding”, entre outros, de uma maneira mais eficaz aumentando, assim o desempenho do trabalho da subestação. Como aplicação final, trata de fazer a modelagem de comunicação dos equipamentos de campo da subestação de Bateias, da Companhia Paranaense de Energia com o emprego dos equipamentos providos pelos principais fornecedores do mercado brasileiro: General Electric, Siemens e ABB; tendo para isso como esquemas de referência os modelos das subestações apresentadas na bibliografia. A modelagem demonstrou ser eficaz na comunicação dos equipamentos de campo de uma Subestação Elétrica, já que é possível mediante a mesma padronizar os protocolos que utiliza, permitindo assim a compatibilidade entre os equipamentos de diferentes fabricantes com a respectiva redução dos custos dos projetos de implementação, programação e treinamento dentro da subestação. / This is a descriptive study concerning the modeling technique applying object-oriented models for a communication interface among the equipments in the field of an electric substation. The standard architecture UCA - Utility Communications Architecture and GOMSFE - Generic Object Models for Substation & Feeder Equipment are used, allowing the reduction of the number of protocols in the different equipment's in the yard. This work also addresses the characteristics and the requisites of an automated substation, in what this new modeling technology is about and its applications for the electric power systems. The different models used for the functions of protection, measurement, control, etc. of an Electric Substation are considered, including the new equipment which carry the information from sensors and actuators in the field to their respective SCADA - Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition - system. The performance of the substation is enhanced by new functions as “voting” in protection relays, “bus blocking” in busbars, "load shedding" in load dispatch. Finally the modeling of the communication functions of the field equipments in the substation Bateias, of Copel - Companhia Paranaense de Energia Elétrica is carried out. The equipment's are the ones found in the Brazilian electric market and the reference schemes are from the bibliography. It is shown that the modeling is effective for the communication among the equipment's in the field of an electric substation, and that it is possible to standardize the different protocols employed there. Consequently the compatibility among the equipment's from different manufacturers occurs, and also the reduction of the costs of implementation, programming and personnel training within the substation.

A Dissertação apresenta as principais mudanças verificadas no Setor Elétrico Brasileiro e os seus reflexos nas atividades de planejamento e estudos de mercado. Examina os desafios do mercado de energia para as distribuidoras de energia elétrica, advindos com o dinamismo comercial e as obrigações institucionais provenientes do novo contexto setorial. Evidencia que os estudos de mercado podem apoiar significativamente as distribuidoras, necessitando para tanto, efetuar mudanças estruturais e metodológicas. A utilização de modelos baseados em usos finais de energia e técnicas de cenários é a mais adequada. / After the restructuring of the Brazilian power sector during the 1990’s, a new set of rules and players (regulators, traders, etc.) was introduced. This situation resulted in significantly impacting the distribution companies in terms of market risks and commercial opportunities. Electric power market assessments that provide fundamental information to the system and tariff planning groups can also be used to support the distribution companies in analyzing various questions within the new rules that have been created. These questions include such items as: How much energy should be contracted in the future in the wholesale market? How much opportunity is available in offering commercial services to the customer? This work describes the main changes that have occurred due to the restructuring, such as: the privatization process, a wholesale market implementation, rules for energy trading, and planning and regulatory process. The main challenges for distribution companies as a result of these changes are identified, especially focusing on energy trading in retail and wholesale markets. The process of electric power market assessments is presented and describing the accepted methodology used for demand forecasting for distribution companies. Information required by distribution companies in order to deal with the market challenges are specified – e.g. energy trading, market risks and customer relationship. It is concluded there is a need to obtain detailed information about consumers and to develop market forecast for specific time frame. It must take into consideration all the issues around the retail market – the study needs to analyze the basic factors that impact customer consumption. In order to improve the electric market assessment, it has been useful to apply specific models. After reviewing the existing tools for electric power market assessments (analysis and forecast), it has been found that the models that combined methods of end use analysis with scenario analysis are most effective. In this way, the distribution companies needs are met and the process also results in better market data for planning and regulatory agencies.

Short circuit, electrical overloads, power line losses and electrical injury, but also circuit breaker and fuse, leakage current protector, power transformation and protection against electric shock. All these terms are connected with the mystery of operation in eletric power distribution systems. Let us join electricity on its journey from power station to everyone's socket. What do we experience on this adventurous journey? Sometimes there may be even a risk of death! Fortunately, thanks to the sophisticated application of physical principles of electricity and magnetism, most of the threats are avoided. Will we be able to uncover the veil of physical electricity site or will it defend its secrets?

The theoretical part of this thesis deals with distribution networks in terms of distribution according to different criteria, describes the main elements of electric distribution networks and their qualities. The following describes the methods of calculating the steady state of electrical networks. These methods are nowadays used as basics for computer programs. In the penultimate chapter of the theoretical part are summarized the principles for the development of present networks and construction of new electrical networks. The aim of practical part of the thesis is to assess the current condition of the network 22 kV in the city of Brno and assess the condition after installation of 110/22 kV transformation in Brno-Sever switching substation. After evaluating the results of steady state electrical network and identifying certain problems is the following aim a proposal of solving problems that emerged in the network. The result should be operational, functional and reliable electric distribution network. This thesis used to calculate the steady state electrical networks by software PAS DAISY Off-Line Bizon V4.

Este trabalho de pesquisa apresenta o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia de diagnóstico automático de falhas do tipo curto-circuito de baixa impedância em circuitos alimentadores de média tensão de sistemas reticulados de distribuição de energia elétrica tipo spot network. O diagnóstico compreende a identificação do tipo de curto-circuito ocorrido e a sua localização. A metodologia está baseada no treinamento e uso de Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs). Os parâmetros para treinamento das RNAs são obtidos a partir de padrões de comportamento elétrico de curtos circuitos monofásicos, bifásicos e trifásicos à terra, obtidos por simulação de um circuito de distribuição real localizado na cidade de Brasília. Para obtenção do comportamento elétrico do circuito de distribuição foi utilizado o aplicativo de simulação ATP (Alternative Transient Program); para estruturação, treinamento e testes das RNAs da metodologia de diagnóstico foi utilizado o software Matlab (aplicativo de RNA). Os principais resultados dos testes das RNAs da metodologia são apresentados. Tais resultados demonstram a viabilidade científica e tecnológica de se aplicar a metodologia desenvolvida como ferramenta de diagnóstico em tempo real de auxílio dos departamentos de engenharia de operação e manutenção de concessionárias elétricas. Este trabalho também apresenta as principais possibilidades de continuidade desta pesquisa científica e tecnológica baseada em redes neurais artificiais na área de diagnóstico automático de sistemas reticulados. / This work presents the development of an automatic failure diagnostic methodology for low impedance short circuit in mid voltage feeders of distribution spot networks systems. The developed methodology has the feature to identify the type of short circuit and its location. An Artificial Neural Network technique was employed. The parameters used to train the Artificial Neural Networks are obtained based upon patterns in simulations of real cases for short circuit behavior in mono-phase, bi-phase and tri-phase to ground configuration. The input data for the simulation was based on a real distribution circuit belonging to the Power Utility CEB located in Brasília-Brazil. The simulation program ATP (Alternative Transient Program) was used to obtain the electric behavior of the circuit in the distribution network. As for the Artificial Neural Network simulation, trainings and tests Matlab was employed. As a main contribution the results of this work shows the technical feasibility to apply such methodology as a important real time diagnostic tool to support the system operation and maintenance departments of power utilities that uses spot network topologies. Furthermore, it is presented the possibilities to continue this research related to automatic diagnostics for network distribution systems based on Artificial Neural Networks technique.

sensíveis têm requerido elevados níveis de confiabilidade dos sistemas de distribuição de energia. Em meio a este cenário, a proliferação de geradores distribuídos conectados próximos às cargas evidencia o surgimento de um novo paradigma na produção e utilização da energia elétrica. No entanto, muitos problemas decorrem do fato de que os sistemas de distribuição não foram projetados para incorporar unidades geradoras de energia. A estratégia completa de controle e proteção é definida sob o pressuposto do fluxo unidirecional de potência nos alimentadores. Um dos conflitos mais imediatos que surgem com a penetração da geração distribuída é relacionado ao sistema de proteção, resultado da alteração na magnitude das correntes de falta. Algumas consequências são a perda da sensibilidade e da coordenação da proteção. Se contornados estes problemas, a geração distribuída tem potencial para exercer impacto positivo sobre a confiabilidade, em especial no suporte ao restabelecimento da carga em situações de contingência. Tendo em vista estes fatores, a metodologia proposta adota uma perspectiva multicriterial para otimizar o desempenho dos sistemas de distribuição na presença da geração distribuída. Os indicadores SAIDI, SAIFI e MAIFI são formulados como modelos de otimização que possibilitam a adequação do sistema de proteção às condições operacionais impostas pela geração distribuída. Dentre os aspectos considerados incluem-se a alocação, a seletividade e a coordenação dos dispositivos de proteção. A alocação de chaves de manobras para reconfiguração do alimentador é a estratégia adotada para maximizar o efeito positivo da geração distribuída sobre a confiabilidade. As soluções dos modelos definem os locais de instalação dos dispositivos de proteção e manobras, e os ajustes dos religadores de forma independente para as unidades de fase e terra. A minimização simultânea dos indicadores é formulada como um problema de Programação Linear Inteira Mista por Metas, visando o balanço ótimo entre a redução das interrupções momentâneas e sustentadas nos sistemas de distribuição. Os modelos analíticos dos indicadores são solucionados utilizando um pacote de otimização de uso geral, baseado no método de Branch-and-Bound. A metodologia é avaliada a partir de um estudo de caso, considerando níveis crescentes de penetração da geração distribuída em um alimentador de distribuição real. Os modelos matemáticos são aplicados em cenários distintos de operação do sistema, associados à diferentes restrições econômicas. Os resultados possibilitam a avaliação do impacto da geração distribuída no restabelecimento e na proteção do sistema de forma independente. / The increasing automation of industrial processes and the sensitivity of electronic loads have required high levels of power distribution system’s reliability. In this scenario, the widespread use of distributed generators connected near the loads shows the emergence of a new paradigm in electric energy production and application. However, many problems arise from the fact that the distribution systems were not designed to deal with power generating units. The complete control and protection strategy is defined under the assumption of radial power flow. One of the most immediate conflicts that arise with the penetration of distributed generation is related to the protection system, a result of the change in fault currents magnitude. Some consequences are loss of protection coordination and sensitivity. By addressing these problems, distributed generation has the potential to have a positive impact on distribution reliability, especially in supporting load restoration during system’s contingencies. Considering these factors, the proposed methodology uses a multi-criteria approach to optimize the overall performance of distribution systems in the presence of distributed generation. The reliability indices SAIDI, SAIFI and MAIFI are formulated as optimization models that allow adequacy of the protection system in relation to the operating conditions imposed by distributed generation. The aspects considered include the allocation, selectivity and coordination of protective devices. The allocation of sectionalizing switches for feeder restoration is the strategy to maximize the positive impact of distributed generation on the system reliability. The model solutions provide the protective devices and switches locations, as well as reclosers’ settings for phase and ground units, independently. Reliability indices minimization is formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Goal Programming problem, in order to establish the optimal trade-off between reducing momentary and sustained interruptions in distribution systems. The analytical models are solved using a general-use optimization package based on the Branch-and-Bound method. The methodology is evaluated through a case study considering increasing levels of distributed generation penetration on a real distribution feeder. The proposed mathematical models are applied in different scenarios of system operation and under different economic constraints. The results allow the evaluation of the impact of distributed generation on restoration and protection of the test system.