Le présent travail s'articule autour de l'élaboration du matériau binaire In2S3 en couches minces en tant qu'alternative crédible au composé CdS, dans les cellules solaires à base de CuInS2. Nous avons utilisé la technique de dépôt chimique en solution (Chemical Bath Deposition ou CBD) qui est une technique non coûteuse, non toxique et facile à manipuler. Les couches fabriquées sont caractérisées de différents points de vue et à différentes échelles : caractérisations structurale par diffraction de rayons X (DRX), morphologique par Microscopie Electronique à Balayage (MEB), composition chimique par spectroscopie en dispersion d'énergie (EDS), propriétés optiques par spectrophotométrie, et électriques par la méthode du courant thermiquement stimulé (TSC) et par cartographie de courant localisé. L'objectif de ce travail est l'étude systématique des effets du dopage à l'aluminium et à l'étain, et du traitement thermique des films minces de In2S3 déposés sur verre et sur SnO2. Nous avons réalisé tout d'abord par CBD une multicouche d'In2S3 :4%Al formée par trois dépôts successifs sur des substrats verre et SnO2:F. La comparaison des caractéristiques physicochimiques est faite avec la couche non dopée en tant que caractéristiques de référence. L'étude par DRX faite pour différentes concentrations en Al, montre que ce binaire cristallise selon la structure cubique d'orientation préférentielle (400). Une meilleure cristallisation est obtenue pour une concentration en aluminium dans la solution y = [Al]/[In] = 4%. L'analyse optique montre que le gap est direct, il varie de 2,3 à 2,9 eV; la plus large bande optique est obtenue pour y = 4%. C'est une bonne valeur pour l'utilisation du composé β-In2-xAlxS3 comme fenêtre optique dans les dispositifs photovoltaïques. L'étude de l'effet du dopage à l'étain des multicouches d'In2S3, nous a permis de déduire qu'une meilleure cristallinité, une faible rugosité de la morphologie de surface et un gap optique plus proche de l'optimum théorique, sont obtenus pour des films croissants sur le substrat Pyrex avec une concentration d'étain égale à 2‰. L'analyse effectuée par MEB sur la tranche a montré que l'épaisseur moyenne des couches diminue avec l'augmentation de la concentration d'étain. La présence de l'étain, même en très petites quantités induit des changements importants dans le processus de croissance du film. L'étude TSC montre que l'augmentation de la concentration de l'étain au-delà 2 ‰ conduit à une diminution de courant thermiquement stimulé. Le recuit à différentes températures sous azote est appliqué aux couches dopées et non dopées étudiées précédemment. Le traitement thermique sous azote à 400°C provoque une augmentation nette de la taille des cristallites pour pratiquement tous les films minces dopés ou non dopés déposés sur verre ou sur SnO2. L'analyse par diffraction des rayons X a révélé une conversion de la phase cubique (400) à la phase tétragonale (109) pour l'In2S3:4%. Le changement de la forme des cristallites observé par AFM, met également en évidence l'existence d'une autre phase. Les analyses électriques par TSC montrent particulièrement le comportement électrique de type semiconducteur pour les films minces dopés à 4% Al, et recuit à 400°C, ainsi que pour les films minces dopés à l'étain après recuit à 200°C. L'analyse locale du courant de conduction dans la couche de In2S3 fait apparaître des inhomogénéités plus grandes après traitement thermique. Cependant les bons résultats macroscopiques permettent d'envisager sereinement la fabrication de cellules solaires incluant ces couches. / The present work focuses on the development of binary material In2S3 thin films as an alternative to CdS in thin film solar cells based on CuInS2. We used the technique of Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD) as it is non-expensive, non-toxic and easy to handle. Layers produced are characterized at different levels and scales: cristalline structure by X-ray diffraction (XRD), surface morphology by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), chemical composition by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), optical properties by spectrophotometry and electrical conduction by thermally stimulated currents (TSC) and local mapping of currents. The objective of this work is the systematic study of the effects of aluminum or tin doping, and heat treatment of In2S3 thin films deposited on glass and SnO2. We achieved first a multilayer of CBD In2S3:Al(4%) formed by three successive deposits on glass and SnO2 substrates. Comparison of physicochemical characteristics is made with the undoped layer as reference features. The XRD study done for different Al concentrations, shows that In2S3:Al crystallizes in the cubic structure with preferential orientation (400). Better crystallization is obtained for a concentration of aluminum in the solution y = [Al] / [In] = 4%. The analysis shows that the optical gap is direct, it varies from 2.3 to 2.9 eV, the largest optical band is obtained for y = 4%. It is a good value for the use of the compound β-In2-xAlxS3 as optical window in photovoltaic devices. The effect of tin doping in In2S3 multilayers induces a better crystallinity, low roughness of the surface morphology and optical gap closer to the theoretical optimum, obtained for films grown on Pyrex substrate with a tin concentration equal to 2 ‰. Analysis by SEM on the wafer cleaved-edge showed that the average thickness of the layers decreases with increasing the concentration of tin. The presence of tin, even in very small quantities induced significant changes in the growth process of the film. The TSC study shows that increasing concentration of tin beyond 2‰ leads to a reduction of thermally stimulated current.Annealing at different temperatures under nitrogen is applied to doped and undoped layers studied previously. Heat treatment under nitrogen at 400 ° C causes a net increase of crystallite size for virtually all thin films doped or undoped deposited on glass or SnO2. The analysis by XRD showed a conversion of the cubic phase (400) to the tetragonal phase (109) for In2S3:Al(4%). Change the shape of the crystallites observed by AFM, also highlights the existence of another phase. The TSC analyzes show particular electrical behavior close to semiconductor type for the thin films doped with 4% Al and annealed at 400°C, as well as thin films doped with tin after annealing at 200°C. The local analysis of the conduction current in the layer of In2S3 shows inhomogeneities larger after heat treatment. However, good macroscopic results should allow to fabricate promising solar cells incorporating these layers.

This thesis deals with the automation of transport experiments on graphene using the graphical programming language LabVIEW. Specifically, the experiments with graphene relative humidity sensors are based on: a two-point graphene structure, a two-point structure of SiO$_2$ and a four-point graphene structure in the form of a Hall bar. In all of these experiments, relative humidity, input electrical parameters, SPM measurements, and macroscopic transport properties are measured simultaneously. The program DeviceManager developed in framework of this thesis simplifies the implementation of these experiments.

Scientists have recently discovered simultaneous photoconductivity and photochromism (i.e., optical switching upon light exposure) of oxygen-containing rare-earth metal hydrides (REMHO). A deep understanding of these extraordinary optical and electrical properties can open the door to advanced technological uses such as smart windows. This thesis work is to establish a correlation between the photochromism of these materials with their photoconductive response and comprehend the underlying physics behind them. The samples were grown by reactive magnetron sputtering. The dynamics of the photochromic effect were observed by recording the time-resolved relative transmittance of the films during photodarkening and bleaching using a UV-vis spectrometer. The samples were characterized electrically by employing the two-point probe resistance measurement. The depth profiles of the concentration of chemical elements were extracted from Ion Beam Analysis. A systematic study was performed to see how the photoconductive and photochromic responses of the REMHO thin films depend on the wavelength and intensity of the illuminating light as well as the chemical composition of the films. Both effects showed i) higher response for shorter wavelength, ii) a cut-off near a similar wavelength, iii) saturation near UV region, and iv) similar relaxation time but with different kinetics. Multiple measurements performed on the same sample showed that the previous measurement affects the next measurement indicating a memory effect. Finally, the photoconductive response showed an increase with increasing oxygen concentration.

The present work deals with the electrical properties of nanocomposite materials. Samples for the experiment are made of epoxy resin as a matrix and oxides TiO2, Al2O3, WO3, SiO2 as nanofillers in 0.5 and 1 percent performance. The experimental samples are measured in temperature and frequency dependence of relative permittivity, dissipation factor, rezistivity and are broken down by the influence of filler on the electrical properties of the polymer. Attention is also paid to the mechanical properties of nanocomposites.

The present master´s thesis deals with the electrical properties of nanocomposite materials. Samples for the experiment are made epoxi resin and oxides TiO2 and Al2O3 as nanofillers in different percent performace. The samples nanocomposites are measured temperature dependence of the resistivity inside, dissipation factor and relative permittivity. It discusses the effect of the filler on the resulting electrical properties of the polymer.

This master's thesis deals with the study of electric properties of graphene layers covered by Ga atoms in UHV conditions. The substrates were prepared by using laser litography and the graphene layer was prepared by using chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Dependence of Dirac point location on gallium atoms deposition time and influence of electrical properties of graphene on hydrogen atoms deposition time were studied. Experimental results and their evaluation are discussed.

The field of hybrid electronics of molecules and traditional semiconductors is deemed to be a realistic route towards possible use of molecular electronics. Such hybrid electronics finds its potential technological applications in nuclear detectors, near-infrared detectors, organic thin film transistors and gas sensors. Specifically Metal / organic / n-Silicon structures in this regard are mostly reported to have two regimes of charge transport at lower and higher applied voltages in such two terminal devices. The fact is mostly attributed to the change in conduction mechanism while moving from lower to higher applied voltages. These reports describe interactions between the semiconductors and molecules in terms of both transport and electrostatics but finding the exact potential distribution between the two components still require numerical calculations. The challenge in this regard is to give the exact relations and the transport models, towards practical quantification of charge transport properties of metal / organic / inorganic semiconductor devices. Some of the most exiting questions in this regard are; whether the existing models are sufficient to describe the device performances of the hybrid devices or some new models are needed? What type of charge carriers are responsible for conduction at lower and higher applied voltages? What is the source of such charge carriers in the sandwiched organic layer between the metal and inorganic semiconductors? How the transition applied voltage for the change in conduction mechanism is determined? What is the role of dopants in the organic layer semiconductors? What are the possible explanations for observed temperature effects in such devices? In present work the charge transport properties of metal / metal-phthalocyanine / n-Si structures with low (ND = 4×1014 cm-3), medium (ND = 1×1016 cm-3) and high (ND = 2×1019 cm-3) doped n-Si as injecting electrode and the effect of air exposure of the vacuum evaporated metal-phthalocyanine film in these structures is investigated. The results obtained through temperature dependent electrical characterizations of the structures suggest that in terms of dominant conduction mechanism in these devices Schottky-type conduction mechanism dominates the charge transport in low-bias region of these devices up to 0.8 V, 0.302 V and 0.15 V in case of low, medium and high doped n-Silicon devices. For higher voltages, in each case of devices, the space-charge-limited conduction, controlled by exponential trap distribution, is found to dominate the charge transport properties of the devices. The interface density of states at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices are found to be lower in case of lower work function difference at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices. The results also suggest that the work function difference at the CuPc / n-Si interface of these devices causes charge transfer at the interface and these phenomena results in formation of interface dipole. The width of the Schottky depletion region at the CuPc / n-Si interface of these devices is found to be higher with higher work function difference at the interface. The investigation of charge transport properties of Al / ZnPc / medium n-Si and Au / ZnPc / medium n-Si devices suggest that the Schottky depletion region formed at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices determines the charge transport in the low-bias region of both the devices. Therefore, the Schottky-type (injection limited) and the space-charge-limited (bulk limited) conduction are observed in the low and the high bias regions of these devices, respectively. The determined width of the Schottky depletion region at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices is found to be similar for both the devices, therefore, the higher work function difference at the metal / ZnPc interface of the devices has no influence on the Schottky depletion region formed at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of the devices. The similar diode ideality factor, barrier height and the width of the Schottky depletion region, determined for both of these devices, demonstrates that these device characteristics originate from ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices. Therefore, the work function difference at the metal / ZnPc interface of these devices has no noticeable influence on the device properties originating from ZnPc / n-Si interface in these devices. The investigation of charge transport properties of Al / CuPc / low n-Si devices with and without air exposure of the CuPc film, before depositing metal contact demonstrate that Schottky-type conduction mechanism dominates the charge transport in these devices up to bias of 0.45 V in case devices with the air exposure, and up to 0.8 V in case devices without the air exposure. This decrease in the threshold voltage, for the change in conduction mechanism in the devices, is attributed to wider Schottky depletion width determined at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices without the air exposure of CuPc film. For higher voltage the space-charge-limited conduction controlled by exponential trap distribution, is found to dominate the charge transport properties of the devices without the air exposure of CuPc, and in case of devices with the air exposure of CuPc film, the SCLC is controlled by single dominating trap level probably introduced by oxygen impurities.:1 INTRODUCTION 3 1.1 Organic / Inorganic Semiconductor Interfaces 5 1.2 Organic / Metal Interfaces 6 1.3 Organic Material / Semiconductor Interfaces 6 1.4 Interface Dipoles at Organic / Inorganic Interfaces 7 1.5 Objectives of the Study 9 1.6 Research Methodology 10 1.7 References 12 2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC ELECTRONICS 16 2.1 Localized and Delocalized Orbital in Organic Semiconductors 16 2.2 Operating principle of some basic organic / inorganic devices 19 2.3 Electronic Structure of an Organic Solid 20 2.4 Validity Limits of band model and the tunneling model 21 2.5 Dark Electric Conduction 23 2.6 Injection of Carriers from Electrodes 24 2.7 References 26 3 MATERIALS AND DEVICE FABRICATION 27 3.1 Assembly of the hybrid organic / inorganic structures 27 3.2 The Vacuum Systems for Device Fabrication 27 3.3 The n-Si substrates 29 3.4 The Organic semiconductors; CuPc and ZnPc 30 3.5 Sample Fabrication Procedures 32 3.5.1 Experimental Details of Samples Prepared at PCRET labs 32 3.5.2 Experimental details of samples Prepared at TU Chemnitz labs 33 3.6 References 34 4 METHODS FOR DATA ANALYSIS 35 4.1 The Dominant Conduction Mechanisms in the Devices 35 4.1.1 Schottky-type Conduction 35 4.1.1.1 The Standard Characterization Technique 38 4.1.1.2 The R. J. Bennett Technique 39 4.1.1.3 The Cheung and Cheung Technique 42 4.1.1.4 The H. Norde Technique 42 4.1.2 Space Charge Limited Conduction (SCLC) 43 4.1.3 The MIM Models to Determine Dominant Conduction Mechanism 44 4.2 Interface State Energy Distribution 46 4.3 References 48 5 CHARGE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF Al / CuPc / n-Si DEVICES IN DARK 50 5.1 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / low-doped n-Si Devices 51 5.1.1 Interface State Energy Distribution 65 5.2 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / medium-doped n-Si Devices 67 5.3 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / High-doped n-Si Devices 75 5.3.1 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / High-doped n-Si Devices as Metal-Insulator-Metal Structures 82 5.4 Summary 85 5.5 Final Remarks 87 5.6 References 88 6 INFLUENCE OF TOP METAL CONTACT ON CHARGE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES META / ZnPc / n-Si DEVICES IN DARK 89 6.1 Charge Transport Properties of Metal / ZnPc / Medium-doped n-Si Devices 89 6.2 Interface State Energy Distribution 99 6.3 Summary 100 6.4 Final Remarks 101 6.5 References 103 7 INFLUENCE AIR EXPOSURE ON THE CHARGE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF Al / CuPc / n-Si DEVICES 104 7.1 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / low n-Si Devices With (or) without air exposure of CuPc film 104 7.2 Summary 115 7.3 Final Remarks 116 7.4 References 117 8 CONCLUSIONS 118 8.1 Scope of Future Work 120 Index of Figures 121 Curriculum Vitae and List of Publications 125

The upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider into the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider requires a complete replacement of the ATLAS Inner Detector by a new all-silicon Inner Tracker. For this reason a new micro-strip sensor type n+ -in-p was developed. These sensors are expected to have many advantages, such as higher radiation resistance, the ability to operate even if not fully de- pleted and faster response. The main purpose of this thesis is to study and evaluate the detection performance and radiation hardness of the n+ -in-p sen- sor type with the help of electrical characteristics performed on the delivered sensors. The obtained results are compared to the Market Survey Step-2 require- ments and in the case of the sensors designed for the ATLAS Inner Tracker also to the corresponding Technical Specification document. 1

Here we propose, for the first time, a new and green ethanol-thermal reaction method to synthesize highquality and pure thiophene–sulfur doped reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which establishes an excellent platform for studying sulfur (S) doping effects on the physical/chemical properties of this material. We have quantitatively demonstrated that the conductivity enhancement of thiophene–S doped rGO is not only caused by the more effective reduction induced by S doping, but also by the doped S atoms, themselves. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the S doping is more effective in enhancing conductivity of rGO than nitrogen (N) doping due to its stronger electron donor ability. Finally, the dye-sensitized solar cell (DSCC) employing the S-doped rGO/TiO₂ photoanode exhibits much better performance than undoped rGO/TiO₂, N-doped rGO/TiO₂ and TiO₂ photoanodes. It therefore seems promising for thiophene–S doped rGO to be widely used in electronic and optoelectronic devices.

Transient negative capacitance effects in epitaxial ferroelectric Pb(Zr₀.₂Ti₀.₈)O₃ capacitors are investigated with a focus on the dynamical switching behavior governed by domain nucleation and growth. Voltage pulses are applied to a series connection of the ferroelectric capacitor and a resistor to directly measure the ferroelectric negative capacitance during switching. A time-dependent Ginzburg-Landau approach is used to investigate the underlying domain dynamics. The transient negative capacitance is shown to originate from reverse domain nucleation and unrestricted domain growth. However, with the onset of domain coalescence, the capacitance becomes positive again. The persistence of the negative capacitance state is therefore limited by the speed of domain wall motion. By changing the applied electric field, capacitor area or external resistance, this domain wall velocity can be varied predictably over several orders of magnitude. Additionally, detailed insights into the intrinsic material properties of the ferroelectric are obtainable through these measurements. A new method for reliable extraction of the average negative capacitance of the ferroelectric is presented. Furthermore, a simple analytical model is developed, which accurately describes the negative capacitance transient time as a function of the material properties and the experimental boundary conditions.