Cannabinoid agonists, including marijuana containing delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are found rewarding by humans. In addition to human self-reports and experimental studies that show marijuana is rewarding, contributions from preclinical studies also have implicated cannabinoid receptors in reward-motivated behavior. One way to assess these preclinical effects of cannabinoids is intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS), where an animal performs a response to receive electrical stimulation of a specific brain area or circuit known to be involved in reward. Drugs of abuse, such as psychomotor stimulants, facilitate responding for ICSS. While a few studies have shown facilitating effects of cannabinoids in rats, several have shown the opposite effect, and no studies so far have evaluated cannabinoids in mouse ICSS. Furthermore there are no studies evaluating specific inhibitors of endocannabinoid catabolic enzymes in ICSS in any species. In these studies we assessed the cannabinoid agonist THC, as well as the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor, PF-3845, the monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitor JZL184, and the combined FAAH/MAGL inhibitor SA-57 in ICSS of the medial forebrain bundle in C57BL/6 mice. Additionally, we assessed the psychomotor stimulant cocaine as a positive control to facilitate ICSS. These studies were complimented with spontaneous locomotor activity and food-maintained operant experiments to assess the sensitivity of ICSS to cannabinoids. Additionally, brain endocannabinoid levels were measured in brain regions associated with the mesolimbic system after enzyme inhibitor treatments. THC, JZL184, and SA-57 all produced time-dependent reductions in ICSS that were mediated through CB1 receptors, as they were blocked by pre-treatment with the CB1 antagonist rimonabant, but not with the CB2 antagonist SR144528. PF-3845 also reduced ICSS, but did so independent of CB1 and CB2 receptors, and only with one dose (30.0 mg/kg) that has not been assessed previously in vivo. We showed that ICSS was more sensitive to the rate-reducing effects of cannabinoids than other measures of behavior with motor components including spontaneous locomotor activity and operant nose-poking for food, and that the reduction of ICSS produced by both JZL184 and SA-57 is accompanied by increases in 2-AG in mesolimbic brain areas. Thus, cannabinoids do not facilitate ICSS in C57BL/6 mice over a range of doses and pre-treatment times, similar to most studies with rats. These data suggest that cannabinoids may produce rewarding effects through non-mesolimbic areas of the brain.

Inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) or monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the chief degradative enzymes of N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (anandamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), respectively, elicits no or partial substitution for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in drug discrimination procedures. However, combined inhibition of both enzymes fully substitutes for THC, as well as produces a full constellation of cannabimimetic effects. Because no published report to date have investigated whether an inhibitor of endocannabinoid hydrolysis will serve as a discriminative stimulus, the purpose of this doctoral dissertation was to investigate whether C57BL/6J mice would learn to discriminate SA-57 (4-[2-(4-Chlorophenyl)ethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 2-(methylamino)-2-oxoethyl ester), a dual inhibitor of FAAH and MAGL, from vehicle in the drug discrimination paradigm. Also, we sought to determine whether inhibiting both enzymes, or inhibiting one enzyme was necessary to generate the SA-57 discriminative stimulus. Initial experiments showed that SA-57 fully substituted for either CP 55,940 ((-)-cis-3-[2-Hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol), a high efficacy CB1 receptor agonist in C57BL/6J, mice or AEA in FAAH (-/-) mice. The majority (i.e., 23 of 24) of subjects achieved criteria of discriminating SA-57 (10 mg/kg) from vehicle within 40 sessions, with full generalization occurring 1-2 h post injection. CP 55,940, the dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor JZL195 (4-nitrophenyl 4-(3-phenoxybenzyl)piperazine-1-carboxylate), the MAGL inhibitors MJN110 (2,5-dioxopyrrolidin-1-yl 4-(bis(4-chlorophenyl)methyl)piperazine-1-carboxylate) and JZL184 (4-[Bis(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)hydroxymethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 4-nitrophenyl ester) fully substituted for SA-57. Although, the FAAH inhibitors PF-3845 and URB597 did not substitute for SA-57, PF3845 produced a two-fold leftward shift in the MJN110 substitution dose-response curve. In addition, the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant blocked the generalization of SA-57 as well as substitution of CP 55,940, JZL195, MJN110, JZL184 for the SA-57 discriminative stimulus. These findings taken together indicate that the inhibition of endocannabinoid-regulating enzymes serve as breaks to prevent overstimulation of CB1 receptors, and MAGL inhibition is the major driving force for generating the SA-57 discriminative stimulus.

Le système endocannabinoïde (SEC) est un système clé de la régulation de la balance énergétique. Les rares études réalisées chez l’Homme concluent à une augmentation des concentrations plasmatiques des endocannabinoïdes, anandamide (AEA) et 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), chez les sujets obèses ou diabétiques de type 2. Cependant plusieurs questions restent posées et cette thèse s’est spécifiquement intéressée : i) à l’existence d’une cinétique prandiale et au rôle des endocannabinoïdes circulants par rapport à la prise alimentaire, ii) aux effets d’une perte de poids obtenue par court-circuit gastrique sur ces concentrations et iii) aux liens physiopathologiques entre insulinorésistance et SEC. Enfin, nous avons tenté de développer un outil non invasif pour faciliter l’étude du SEC chez l’Homme. Dans la 1ère étude, nous avons mis en évidence pour la première fois une augmentation préprandiale de l’AEA indépendante du poids. Ceci suggère que l’AEA plasmatique pourrait jouer un rôle dans l’initiation de la prise alimentaire chez l’Homme. De façon intéressante, la réduction post prandiale de l’AEA est émoussée chez les sujets obèses insulinorésistants, ce qui peut créer un cercle vicieux vis à vis de l’obésité. Dans la 2ème étude, des résultats préliminaires montrent qu’une même perte de poids obtenue par court-circuit gastrique ou par règles hygiéno-diététiques modifie différemment les concentrations plasmatiques d’AEA qui tendent à augmenter après court-circuit gastrique alors qu’elles ne sont pas modifiées après règles hygiéno-diététiques. Ainsi, le court-circuit gastrique pourrait directement affecter le fonctionnement du SEC localisé au niveau du tractus gastro-intestinal. Dans la 3ème étude, 72 heures de régime hypoglucidique permettent de diminuer significativement la glycémie à jeun et la résistance à l’insuline de 8 sujets diabétiques de type 2, mais pas les concentrations plasmatiques d’endocannabinoïdes, qui ne sont par ailleurs pas modifiées chez ces sujets en fonction du statut nutritionnel. Enfin, nous avons pu déterminer les concentrations des endocannabinoïdes dans la salive humaine, qui sont plus élevées chez les sujets obèses par rapport aux normopondéraux, avec une diminution de l’AEA salivaire associée à la perte de poids, mais sans variation en fonction de la prise alimentaire. La salive pourrait donc constituer un outil non invasif pour l’étude du SEC chez l’Homme.Ainsi, notre travail confirme les liens entre SEC et pathologies métaboliques chez l’Homme. Nos résultats suggèrent en particulier un rôle physiologique de l’AEA dans la prise alimentaire ainsi que l’importance potentielle du SEC du tractus gastro-intestinal. Nous confirmons la dérégulation statique et dynamique du SEC dans la situation de diabète de type 2. Enfin nous développons un nouvel outil pour l’exploration du SEC chez l’Homme. Nos résultats sont importants car la meilleure connaissance des systèmes impliqués dans la régulation de la balance énergétique est nécessaire pour le développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques efficaces contre l’obésité et ses pathologies associées. / The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a key system for the regulation of energy balance. Only few studies have been so far carried out in humans but they all lead to conclude that obese subjects have higher plasma fasting levels of the 2 major endocannabinoids, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). However, many questions concerning the role of the ECS in the physiopathology of obesity in humans remain still unanswered. This thesis has therefore attempted to address some of these questions by investigating i) the changes of plasma endocannabinoids in response to food intake, ii) the effect of weight loss induced by gastric bypass or lifestyle intervention on these plasma levels and iii) the potential link between insulin resistance and circulating endocannabinoids. Lastly, we have also tested the possibility to develop a non-invasive tool to ease the investigation of the ECS in humans. In the 1st study, we have described for the first time the existence of a pre-prandial peak in plasma AEA, which is independent of body weight. This evidence suggests that circulating AEA levels might work as a meal initiator factor in humans. Importantly, the AEA postprandial decrease is blunted in obese insulin resistant subjects and might therefore favor the persistence of the obese phenotype. In our 2nd study, preliminary results suggest that the same body weight loss obtained through gastric-bypass or lifestyle intervention differently affects plasma AEA levels. In particular, while AEA tend to increase in subjects who have undergone gastric bypass, no changes are observed after a comparable weight loss induced by lifestyle intervention. Thus, a possibility is that the bypass might directly affect the function of the ECS localized within the gastrointestinal tract. In our 3rd study, which was carried out on 8 type 2 diabetic patients, we have shown that 72 hours of a low carbohydrate diet significantly decreases glycaemia and insulin resistance, without affecting the levels and the kinetic of circulating endocannabinoids. Lastly, we demonstrated that endocannabinoids are reliably measured in saliva. Salivary endocannabinoids are higher in obese as compared to normal weight subjects. Body weight loss significantly decreases salivary AEA, while the consumption of a meal does not influence salivary endocannabinoids levels. Altogether our studies confirm the association between ECS deregulation and metabolic disease in humans. In particular, we have demonstrated that plasma AEA might have a physiological role in the regulation of human feeding behavior, and have hinted the potential relevance of the gastro-intestinal ECS in our studies on gastric-bypass patients. We have also shown that in type 2 diabetes, there is a flattening of the kinetics of circulating endocannabinoids. Finally, we have shown that measurement of salivary endocannabinoids is reliable and might be of clinical value. These findings extend our knowledge on one of the systems majorly implicated in energy balance regulation. Such knowledge is a necessary step towards the development of novel therapeutic strategies needed to halt obesity and metabolic disease.

Os efeitos dos canabinoides em algumas áreas encefálicas que expressam receptores endocanabinoides, como é o caso dos núcleos hipotalâmicos, não são ainda muito bem definidos. Vários estudos têm demonstrado o papel de alguns núcleos hipotalâmicos na organização das reações induzidas pelo medo inato e pelo pânico. As respostas de defesa induzidas pelo medo instintivo caracterizam-se por serem mais elaboradas e dirigidas para algum abrigo ou rota de fuga. O estado de pânico pode ser provocado experimentalmente em animais de laboratório através da diminuição da atividade do sistema GABAérgico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar os padrões comportamentais de fuga elaborada induzidos pelo bloqueio de receptores GABAérgicos do tipo A, com microinjeções intra-hipotalâmicas de bicuculina (BIC), especificamente na divisão dorso-medial do hipotálamo ventro-medial (VMHDM), assim como estabelecer o envolvimento endocanabinoides e o papel do receptor canabinoide do tipo 1 (CB1) na modulação das respostas defensivas organizadas pelo hipotálamo medial. Os resultados mostraram que a administração prévia de doses intermediárias (5pmol) de anandamida (AEA) atenuaram as respostas defensivas induzidas pela microinjeção intra-VMHDM de bicuculina (40ng), efeito este prevenido pelo pré-tratamento intra-hipotalâmica com antagonista de receptores CB1. Os resultados indicam que a AEA pode modular os efeitos pró-aversivos da bicuculina no VMHDM por meio do recrutamento de receptores CB1. / The effects of cannabinoids in some brain areas that express endocannabinoid receptors, such as some hypothalamic nuclei, are not yet well known. Several studies have demonstrated a role of hypothalamic nuclei in the organisation of behavioural responses induced by innate fear and panic attacks. The defensive responses induced by instinctive fear are more elaborated and oriented toward a burrow or alternative route of escape. Panic-prone states are able to be experimentally induced in laboratory animals decreasing the GABAergic system activity. The aim of this work was to study panic-like elaborated defensive behaviour evoked by GABAA receptor blockade with bicuculline (BIC) in the dorsomedial division of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHDM), we also aimed to establish the involvement of endocannabinoids and the role of CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the modulation of elaborated defense behavioural responses organised by medial hypothalamus. The results showed that intra-hypothalamic administration of anandamide (AEA) at the intermediate dose (5pmol) attenuated defensive responses induced by intra-VMHDM microinjection of bicuculline (40ng). This effect, however, was prevented by the pre-treatment of VMHDM with the CB1 receptor antagonist AM251. These results indicate that AEA can modulate the pro-aversive effects of bicuculline into the VMHDM, recruiting CB1 receptors.

Receptores CB1 e TRPV1 desempenham papéis opostos na modulação da atividade neuronal e, possivelmente, na regulação da resposta ao estresse. A exposição ao estresse reduz a neurotransmissão mediada por receptores CB1, enquanto que a facilitação do sistema endocanabinóide produz efeito tipoantidepressivo. Por outro lado, estudos farmacológicos e de manipulação genética apontam que a diminuição da sinalização mediada por receptores TRPV1 produz efeito tipo-antidepressivo em modelos animais. Evidências científicas apontam que a modulação da neurotransmissão glutamatérgica, dependente de receptores NMDA, esteja envolvida em respostas mediadas por CB1 e TRPV1. Ambos os receptores são amplamente expressos em estruturas cerebrais envolvidas na resposta emocional, incluindo o córtex pré-frontal medial ventral (CPFmv), o que aponta para essa estrutura como importante alvo para os efeitos mediados por receptores CB1, TRPV1 e NMDA. Entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre a interação entre CB1 e TRPV1 corticais na resposta ao estresse. Dessa forma, avaliamos se receptores CB1 e TRPV1 localizados no CPFmv-pré-límbico (PL) podem contribuir, de maneiras opostas, para as mudanças comportamentais induzidas pelo estresse do teste do nado forçado (TNF), um teste preditivo de efeito tipo-antidepressivo. Em um primeiro grupo experimental observou-se que a AEA induz efeito tipo-antidepressivo com uma curva dose-resposta em U, quando administrada no CPFmv-PL. Além disso, o efeito tipo-antidepressivo da AEA foi prevenido pela pré-administração de AM251, um antagonista para receptores CB1. Por outro lado, a maior dose de AEA, que não induz efeito per se, produziu efeito tipo-antidepressivo quando combinada ao bloqueio de receptores TRPV1 por meio do pré-tratamento com SB366791. Corroborando estes dados, observou-se que a administração intra-CPFmv-PL de um bloqueador dual da enzima FAAH e de receptores TRPV1 (AA-5HT), induziu efeito tipo-antidepressivo no teste do nado forçado. Além disso, a administração do inibidor da FAAH (URB597) e do antagonista de receptores TRPV1 (SB366791), em grupos independentes de animais, reduziu o tempo de imobilidade no teste do nado forçado. Ademais, a coadministração de doses subefetivas de URB597 e SB366791 reduziu o tempo de imobilidade no mesmo teste comportamental, evidenciando somação de efeito do bloqueio combinado da FAAH com receptores TRPV1. Em conjunto, esses ii resultados indicam que tanto a facilitação da neurotransmissão mediada por CB1R quanto o bloqueio de TRPV1R no CPFmv-PL promove efeito tipo-antidepressivo, sugerindo que ambos os receptores corticais são importantes na modulação de respostas comportamentais ao estresse e, possivelmente, na neurobiologia da depressão, porém de maneiras opostas. Buscando elucidar os mecanismos pelos quais a AEA, através da ativação de CB1R e TRPV1R, promove seus efeitos comportamentais, o envolvimento da das neurotransmissões glutamatérgica e nitrérgica nos efeitos induzidos pela AEA foi investigado. Nossos resultados demonstraram que a administração de antagonista de receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo NMDA (LY235959) e de inibidor da nNOS (NPA) induziram efeito tipoantidepressivo no teste do nado forçado quando administrados intra-CPFmv-PL. Além disso, a coadministração de doses subefetivas do antagonista NMDA (LY366791) e da AEA intra-CPFmv-PL, induziu efeito tipo-antidepressivo no TNF, mostrando um efeito aditivo da administração conjunta das drogas. Esse resultado sugere que o efeito tipo-antidepressivo da AEA seja facilitado pela inibição da neurotransmissão glutamatérgica mediada por NMDA. Em conjunto, os resultados do presente trabalho indicam um envolvimento de CB1 e TRPV1 do CPFmv-PL na modulação da resposta comportamental ao estresse do nado forçado, porém de maneira contrária. Além disso, o efeito tipo-antidepressivo da AEA parece envolver a diminuição da neurotransmissão glutamatérgica mediada por NMDAR. / CB1 and TRPV1 receptors play opposite roles in the modulation of neuronal activity and, possibly, in the regulation of the stress response. Exposure to stress attenuates CB1 receptor-mediated neurotransmission, while facilitation of the endocannabonoid system produces antidepressant-like effects. On the other hand, genetic and pharmacological blockade of TRPV1 receptor signalling produces antidepressant-like effect in animal models. Scientific evidence suggests NMDA receptor-mediated glutamatergic neurotransmission might be involved in responses mediated by CB1 and TRPV1. Both receptors are widely expressed in brain structures involved in the emotional response, including the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (CPFmv), which points to this structure as an important target to the effects triggered by CB1 and TRPV1. However, little is known about the interaction between cortical CB1 and TRPV1 in response to stress. Therefore, we evaluated whether CB1 and TRPV1 receptors of the vmPFC-PL may contribute, in opposite ways, to stress-induced behavioral changes in the forced swimming test (FST), a predictive test of antidepressant-like effect. In a first experimental group it was observed that AEA induces antidepressant-like effect with a U shape dose-response curve, when administered in the vmPFC-PL. In addition, the antidepressant-like effect of AEA was prevented by pre-administration with AM251, a CB1 receptor antagonist. On the other hand, the higher dose of AEA, which does not induce effect per se, produced an antidepressant-like effect when combined with TRPV1 receptor blockade with SB366791. Corroborating these data, intra-vmPFC-PL administration of a dual blocker of the FAAH enzyme and TRPV1 receptors (AA-5HT), induced antidepressant-like effect in the forced swimming test. In addition, administration of FAAH inhibitor (URB597) and TRPV1 receptor antagonist (SB366791) in independent groups of animals reduced the immobility time in the forced swimming test. Furthermore, co-administration of URB597 and SB366791, in sub-effective doses, reduced the immobility time in the same behavioral test, evidencing synergism of the combined blockade of FAAH with TRPV1 receptors. Taken together, these results indicate that both facilitation of CB1R-mediated neurotransmission and blockade of TRPV1R in vmPFC-PL promotes antidepressantlike effect, suggesting that both cortical receptors are important in modulating iv behavioral responses to stress and possibly in the neurobiology of depression, but in opposite ways. Aiming to elucidate the mechanisms by which AEA, through the activation of CB1R and TRPV1R, promotes its behavioral effects, the involvement of the possible modulation of glutamatergic and nitrergic neurotransmissions by AEA was investigated. Our results demonstrated that administration of NMDA receptor antagonist (LY235959) and nNOS inhibitor (NPA) induced antidepressant-like effect in the forced swimming test when administered intra-CPFmv-PL. In addition, coadministration of NMDA antagonist (LY366791) and AEA intra-CPFmvPL, in subeffective doses, induced antidepressant-like effect in the FST, showing a synergistic effect of these drugs. This result suggests that the antidepressant-like effect of AEA might involve attenuation of cortical NMDA-mediated glutamatergic neurotransmission. Taken together, results of the present study indicate an opposite involvement for CB1 and TRPV1 receptors in the behavioral responses elicited by forced swimming stress. Furthermore, the antidepressant-like effect of AEA probably involves the attenuation of NMDAR-mediated glutamatergic neurotransmission.

Os efeitos dos canabinoides em algumas áreas encefálicas que expressam receptores endocanabinoides, como é o caso dos núcleos hipotalâmicos, não são ainda muito bem definidos. Vários estudos têm demonstrado o papel de alguns núcleos hipotalâmicos na organização das reações induzidas pelo medo inato e pelo pânico. As respostas de defesa induzidas pelo medo instintivo caracterizam-se por serem mais elaboradas e dirigidas para algum abrigo ou rota de fuga. O estado de pânico pode ser provocado experimentalmente em animais de laboratório através da diminuição da atividade do sistema GABAérgico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar os padrões comportamentais de fuga elaborada induzidos pelo bloqueio de receptores GABAérgicos do tipo A, com microinjeções intra-hipotalâmicas de bicuculina (BIC), especificamente na divisão dorso-medial do hipotálamo ventro-medial (VMHDM), assim como estabelecer o envolvimento endocanabinoides e o papel do receptor canabinoide do tipo 1 (CB1) na modulação das respostas defensivas organizadas pelo hipotálamo medial. Os resultados mostraram que a administração prévia de doses intermediárias (5pmol) de anandamida (AEA) atenuaram as respostas defensivas induzidas pela microinjeção intra-VMHDM de bicuculina (40ng), efeito este prevenido pelo pré-tratamento intra-hipotalâmica com antagonista de receptores CB1. Os resultados indicam que a AEA pode modular os efeitos pró-aversivos da bicuculina no VMHDM por meio do recrutamento de receptores CB1. / The effects of cannabinoids in some brain areas that express endocannabinoid receptors, such as some hypothalamic nuclei, are not yet well known. Several studies have demonstrated a role of hypothalamic nuclei in the organisation of behavioural responses induced by innate fear and panic attacks. The defensive responses induced by instinctive fear are more elaborated and oriented toward a burrow or alternative route of escape. Panic-prone states are able to be experimentally induced in laboratory animals decreasing the GABAergic system activity. The aim of this work was to study panic-like elaborated defensive behaviour evoked by GABAA receptor blockade with bicuculline (BIC) in the dorsomedial division of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHDM), we also aimed to establish the involvement of endocannabinoids and the role of CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the modulation of elaborated defense behavioural responses organised by medial hypothalamus. The results showed that intra-hypothalamic administration of anandamide (AEA) at the intermediate dose (5pmol) attenuated defensive responses induced by intra-VMHDM microinjection of bicuculline (40ng). This effect, however, was prevented by the pre-treatment of VMHDM with the CB1 receptor antagonist AM251. These results indicate that AEA can modulate the pro-aversive effects of bicuculline into the VMHDM, recruiting CB1 receptors.

A ativação do receptor CB1, leva a modulação de processos intracelulares que muda a resposta celular de acordo com o estímulo, além de estar envolvida em mecanismos de proliferação, diferenciação, movimentação e morte celular. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a participação desse sistema em processos oxidativo e inflamatório relacionados à neurodegeneração in vitro. Foi utilizado a linhagem de neuroblastoma Neuro2a diferenciada em células dopaminérgicas que foram expostas a três condições: com 6OHDA, H2O2 e LPS e co-tratadas com o agonista do receptor CB1 ACEA e o antagonista/agonista inverso AM251 por 24 horas. Utilizamos parâmetros funcionais de viabilidade celular, produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio e técnica de western blot. O tratamento com ACEA ou ACEA/AM251 produziram um aumento da viabilidade celular nos três modelos de exposição propostos; redução da produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio e ativação da via da proteína ERK1/2, além da inibição da morte celular pela diminuição da expressão da caspase 3. Concluímos que os canabinoides escolhidos foram capazes de proteger as células dopaminérgicas do dano oxidativo e inflamatório através do aumento da sobrevida celular por diminuição da produção de ROS. / The CB1 receptor activation leads to modulation of intracellular processes that change the cellular response according to the stimulus, as well as being involved in mechanisms of proliferation, differentiation, cell movement and death. The present study evaluated the participation of this system in oxidative and inflammatory processes related to neurodegeneration in vitro. We have used the Neuro2A neuroblastoma lineage, which those were differentiated into dopaminergic cells, and exposed to 6OHDA, H2O2 and LPS. They were co-treated with ACEA, CB1 receptor agonist, and AM251, the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist, for 24 hours. We used functional parameters of cell viability, production of reactive oxygen species and protein analyses by western blot. Treatment with ACEA or ACEA/AM251 produced an increase in cell viability; reduced production of reactive oxygen species and activation of the ERK1/2 protein, in addition to inhibition of cell death by decreasing the expression of caspase 3 in all three models proposed. We concluded that chosen cannabinoids were able to protect dopaminergic cells from oxidative damage and inflammation through the increased cell survival by decreasing the production of ROS.

Detection of evolutionarily conserved pathogen motifs by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), particularly on dendritic cells (DCs), is crucial for adequate immune responses. Defects in DC function are known to be associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is the system through which exocannabinoids such as Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol signal. Regarding inflammation, cannabinoids generally exert anti-inflammatory effects, including on experimental colitis. However, most work has been performed in animal models and less is known about the function of this system in human immune cells, particularly DCs. Monoacylglycerol lipase (MGLL) is the key enzyme for hydrolysis of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol, and a member of the serine hydrolase enzyme superfamily. This thesis defines the activity of serine hydrolase enzymes for the first time in human DCs upon stimulation by NOD2/TLR2 ligands using activity-based protein profiling (ABPP). MGLL is shown to be ubiquitously upregulated upon stimulation of DCs and in monocyte-derived macrophages. Through pharmacological inhibition studies, MGLL is demonstrated to regulate cellular and secreted lipids, not limited to endocannabinoids. However, overall DC function is independent of this enzyme suggesting that the effects of lipid modulation may be on bystander cells. Challenging the current literature, MGLL inhibition with a novel inhibitor worsens murine Citrobacter rodentium colitis. Finally, ABPP demonstrates a rich serine hydrolome in colonic tissue from human IBD with many enzymes previously undefined in this disease. Gene expression of ECS components suggests the enzymes ABHD12 and DAGLα/β may be potential markers of field change in IBD.

Anti-inflammatory drugs are a widely used class of therapeutic agents, but the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) is hampered by their gastrointestinal side-effects. Recent reports that cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors may cause cardiovascular events underline the importance of identifying new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of inflammation. One such target could be agents modifying the endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system, since there is evidence that this system plays a role in our natural defence against inflammation. The levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide, AEA) are low under normal conditions, and stand under strict regulatory control of synthesising and degrading enzymes. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is the main enzyme degrading AEA, hydrolysing it to ethanolamine and arachidonic acid. The focus of this thesis lies in exploring the pharmacology of FAAH to evaluate its possibilities as a target for new anti-inflammatory drugs. In Papers I and II, the effects of the ambient pH on the properties of FAAH were investigated, since tissue pH is known to decrease under inflammatory conditions. In homogenates, it was found that the activity of FAAH decreased as the assay pH was decreased, consistent with the known pH profile of the enzyme. More importantly, the sensitivity of the enzyme to inhibition by FAAH inhibitors changed. In particular, the sensitivity of the enzyme to inhibition by the NSAID ibuprofen increased seventeen-fold as the assay pH decreased from 8.37 to 5.28. A similar pattern was found using intact C6 glioma cells when the extracellular, but not the intracellular pH was reduced. Thus, at an extracellular pH value of 6.2, (R)-ibuprofen, (S)-flurbiprofen and (R,S)-flurbiprofen inhibited the metabolism of AEA with IC50 values of 26, 14 and 15 µM, respectively. These values are in theory reachable upon normal dosing of the compounds. In Paper III, the effect of the selective FAAH inhibitor URB597 and the NSAID indomethacin were investigated in vivo upon the oedema response to carrageenan administration in the paw of anaesthetised mice. Both compounds reduced the oedema in a manner completely blocked by the CB2 receptor antagonist SR144528. In Paper IV, the effect of inflammation upon endocannabinoid synthesis was investigated in mice. Lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammation was found not to affect the release of AEA to any obvious extent, and did not change the activities of the AEA synthesising enzymes N-acyl transferase or N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D, or of FAAH in lung tissue. The results of this thesis would suggest that FAAH inhibitors can produce anti-inflammatory effects, and that the endocannabinoid system contributes to the actions of the NSAID indomethacin in the carrageenan model of inflammation, but that an increased endocannabinoid synthesis (a prerequisite for FAAH inhibition as a therapeutic strategy) is not an obligatory response to an inflammatory stimulus.

Anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) exert most of their actions by binding to cannabinoid receptors. The effects of the endocannabinoids are short-lived due to rapid cellular accumulation and metabolism, for AEA, primarily by the enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). This has led to the hypothesis that by inhibition of the cellular processing of AEA, beneficial effects in conditions such as pain and inflammation can be enhanced. The overall aim of the present thesis has been to examine the mechanisms involved in the cellular processing of AEA and how they can be influenced pharmacologically by both synthetic natural compounds. Liposomes, artificial membranes, were used in paper I to study the membrane retention of AEA. The AEA retention mimicked the early properties of AEA accumulation, such as temperature-dependency and saturability. In paper II, FAAH was blocked by a selective inhibitor, URB597, and reduced the accumulation of AEA into RBL2H3 basophilic leukaemia cells by approximately half. Treating intact cells with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein, an isoflavone found in soy plants and known to disrupt caveolae-related endocytosis, reduced the AEA accumulation by half, but in combination with URB597 no further decrease was seen. Further on, the effects of genistein upon uptake were secondary to inhibition of FAAH. The ability to inhibit the accumulation and metabolism of AEA was shared by several flavonoids (shown in paper III). In paper IV, the isoflavone biochanin A and URB597 had effects in vivo, in a model of persistent pain, effects decreased by the cannabinoid receptor 1 antagonist AM251. In paper VI, the cellular processing of the endocannabinoid metabolites following degradation was examined, a mechanism poorly understood. It was found that nitric oxide (NO) donors significantly increased the retention of tritium in cell membranes following incubation with either tritiated AEA or 2-AG. Further experiments revealed that the effect of NO donors mainly involves the arachidonate part of the molecules. Inhibition of FAAH completely reduced the effect of NO donors in cells with a large FAAH component, indicating that the effects were downstream of the enzyme. These results suggest that the cellular processing of endocannabinoids can be affected in a manner of different ways by pharmacological manipulation in vitro and that naturally occurring flavonoid compounds can interact with the endocannabinoid system.