<p>Elektrifisering av petroleumsinstallasjoner i Sørlige Nordsjø med integrasjon av offshore vindproduksjon Student: Eirik Veirød Øyslebø Veileder: Olav Bjarte Fosso Kontaktpersoner: Vegard Willumsen og Anne Sofie Ravndal Risnes, NVE Denne rapporten er skrevet som en del av min masteroppgave våren 2010, og er basert på de resultater som ble presentert i prosjektrapporten høsten 2009. Første del av oppgaven går ut på å opprette en modell av en elektrifiseringsløsning for fire petroleumsfelter i Sørlige Nordsjø; Ekofisk, Eldfisk, Gyda og Ula. I prosjektoppgaven ble forskjellige løsninger for en slik elektrifiseringsløsning diskutert, og det ble konkludert med at VSC HVDC-konseptet er det mest hensiktsmessige i en slik sammenheng, både med tanke på tapsprosent, men også i forhold til systemkontroll. Modellen er utarbeidet i simuleringsverktøyet PowerFactory fra DIgSILENT GmbH. Fra sentralnettskoblingen på Lista sørvest i Norge, transformeres spenningen ned til det spenningsnivå omformeren er dimensjonert for. Deretter gjøres spenningen om til DC i omformeren, før den passerer gjennom de 280 kilometer lange bipolare HVDC-kablene, med et spenningsnivå på ±150 kV. Ute på Ekofiskfeltet opprettes det en omformerplattform, som inkluderer offshore omformer, filtre, transformator, SVC-anlegg, samt forgreininger til petroleumslastene. SVC-anlegget installeres på omformerplattformen for å holde spenningen ytterst i systemet på et tilfredsstillende nivå. Omformeren transformerer DC-spenningen om til 132 kV AC-spenning. Deretter blir denne transformert ned til 52 kV, som er valgt som systemspenning offshore. Videre går det 52 kV-kabler ut til hver enkelt plattform. Ute på feltene transformeres spenningen ned til allerede gjeldende systemspenning på hvert enkelt felt. For Ekofisk betyr det 13.8 kV, mens de tre andre benytter seg av 6.6 kV. Omformeren onshore kontrolleres med tanke på å holde spenningen på HVDC-kablene stabile. Måten dette er gjort på er ved bruk av et kontrollsystem som bruker strøm- og spenningsmålinger til å regulere og styre PWM-styringen av transistorene i omformeren. Offshore omformer har som oppgave å opprettholde AC-spenningen offshore på et stabilt nivå, samtidig som frekvensen må styres etter hvert som implementering av vindparker blir aktuelt. Det er også utarbeidet vindkraftmodeller i PowerFactory. Disse er laget med tanke på å simulere vindkraftens påvirkning på HVDC-systemet og plattformlastene, og er av den grunn en del forenklet. I tillegg er det benyttet en universitetsversjon av PowerFactory, noe som betyr at modellen har en begrensning på 50 samleskinner. Det er derfor valgt å samle vindturbinene i store turbinmodeller framfor å modellere turbinene hver for seg. Disse vindparkmodulene er koblet til samleskinne OF52kV i figuren over. Videre simuleringer er gjort på tre forskjellige topologier. Den første topologien inneholder kun HVDC-linken med de fire petroleumsfeltene. Her er det undersøkt hvordan HVDC-systemet oppfører seg ved feil og andre hendelser som induserer transienter, i tillegg til om hvorvidt spenning og frekvens på de fire petroleumsfeltene holder seg innenfor akseptable grenser ved de samme transiente hendelsene. Videre er basistopologien utvidet med en vindparkmodul som ved normale tilstander produserer om lag 120 MW. Her har det vært fokus på hvordan feil og hendelser på vindparken påvirker resten av systemet. I tillegg er det gjort simuleringer på en kortslutning på omformerplattformen for å få direkte sammenliknbare resultater med samme hendelse for basistopologien. Til slutt er vindparken utvidet ytterligere med nok en vindparkmodul på 120 MW. I normal tilstand her er det eksport fra vindparkene og inn mot land. Videre er de samme hendelsene undersøkt, som var tilfellet for den lille vindparken, for lettere å kunne sammenlikne de transiente forløpende. Konklusjonen er at HVDC-systemet klarer å styre systemet tilbake til stabil tilstand etter de forstyrrelser som er simulert her. De største problemene kommer av at hendelser rundt om i AC-systemet offshore fører til uakseptable transiente hendelser på plattformlastene, noe HVDC-systemet ikke kan forhindre. Verst er dette for feil på omformerplattformen, og hovedmønsteret er at større AC-system offshore, gir større oscillasjoner med lengre varighet. Det vil si at kortslutning på omformerplattform med stor vindpark innkoblet, er worst case i denne oppgaven. Ved de andre typene forstyrrelser som det her er undersøkt, viser det seg å være gunstigere med to vindparkmoduler enn bare en.</p>

<p>Sammendrag Denne masteroppgaven tar for seg klimatiseringsløsningen i et kontrolltårn ved en flyplass. Kontrolltårnkabinen er studert med mål om å komme frem til en optimal systemløsning med hensyn på energieffektiv drift og godt arbeidsmiljø. Denne delen av kontrolltårnet er av en komplisert form, og består av store glassfasader. Dette gir en utfordring med å forsyne flygelederne med et godt nok inneklima. Det er fokusert på akustisk, atmosfærisk og termisk inneklima i dette arbeidet. Energiberegninger og simuleringer av inneklimatiske verdier i oppgaven er gjort i beregningsprogrammet SIMIEN 4.034. Klimatiseringsløsningen som var tiltenkt tårnkabinen består av omrøringsventilasjon, kjølebafler og radiatorer. En vurdering er fremlagt av denne systemløsningen sammen med andre forbedringer for kontrolltårnkabinen. Alternative klimatiseringsløsninger er så presentert, og en ny, forbedret systemløsning foreligger som resultat av inneklimatiske og energimessige vurderinger. Den nye, foreslåtte klimatiseringsløsningen består av personlig ventilering ved arbeidsbordet til flygelederne, i tillegg til den opprinnelig valgte løsningen. Dette gir flygelederne individuell kontroll over sitt eget lokale klima. Ettersom personer har veldig forskjellige preferanser særlig til termiske forhold, vil individuell kontroll av luftens temperatur og hastighet føre til en større komfortmessig gevinst. Termisk komfort påvirker prestasjon og mental ytelse, og termisk balanse med omgivelsene gir maksimal uttelling for arbeidseffektivitet. Personlig ventilasjon tilfører samtidig friskluft direkte til pustesonen, og sørger dermed for tilnærmet forurensingsfri luft til flygelederne. Det totale netto energibehovet for denne klimatiseringsløsningen ligger 3,2 % høyere enn for Multiconsults tiltenkte løsning. For en forbedret energieffektivitet og inneklima i tårnkabinen, ble det i tillegg anbefalt å igangsette andre tiltak: En installering av radiatorer med lavere konveksjonsgrad vil gi en mer behagelig oppvarming og en reduksjon av kaldras fra vinduene. For å hidre den store solinnstrålingen gjennom sommeren vil en bruk av vinduer med lavere solfaktor føre til et mindre kjølebehov og et bedre termisk inneklima. En reduksjon i solfaktoren på 5 % vil kunne dekke det høyere energibehovet for den nye klimatiseringsløsningen. For å hindre lav relativ luftfuktighet gjennom vinterperioden bør det installeres en befukter i ventilasjonsanlegget. Dermed installeres det også en fuktsensor i tillegg til en sensor for strålingstemperaturen. Disse to parametrene er svært viktige for opplevelsen av et godt inneklima.</p>

<p>CO2 is an environmentally friendly refrigerant that has a no global warming potential when used as refrigerant. The current refrigerants used for air conditioning in public transport are chemical components, and have a high global warming impact. The possibility of replacing the conventional refrigerants by CO2 is investigated for various parts of the transport sector. A possible CO2system for heating and cooling for public transport has been modeled and simulated. This system is a turntable prototype which is reversing the airflows to provide either cooling or heating. It has two gascoolers and two evaporators for separate treatment of ambient and recycled air. The plate is rotated 180˚ to switch from heating to cooling mode. CO2 has large potential for expansion work, due to the normally large throttling losses for high ambient temperatures. An ejector has therefore been implemented in the heat pump circuit. The turntable prototype is modeled by the simulation tool Modelica, and it is investigated how this ejector system adjusts to varying ambient conditions and power demand. Weather data from the climate database Meteonorm was used as a basis for calculation of heating and cooling demand for a train compartment in five different cities, covering a variety of climates. A case study was performed based on an occupancy rate profile and operative hours of the heat pump for the compartment. Simulations were performed of the air reversing heat pump based on the heating -and cooling demand calculations for the five cities. The COP values obtained are very positive, and they are in general higher for heating than cooling mode. The COP is depending on the load, and decreases with reduced occupancy rate. For cooling mode the COP ranged from 3.1 to 6. For heating mode it ranged from 8.2 to 2.8. With the occupancy rate chosen, the annual energy savings is about 80% for all the 5 cities of the study. The fan work of the heat pumps was also included for 4 different operating modes. This reduced the total COP by between 10 to 40%, depending on heating and cooling power requirement and ambient conditions. The fin and tube gas coolers that were used in the Modelica model were compared to a set of MPE gas coolers. The total mass of the heat exchangers was reduced by 50%. One would still have to weigh the reduced mass and increased LCCP performance against the increased investment cost of the MPE heat exchangers.</p>

<p>There were three main objectives in this thesis. The first objective was to find the utility patent of a building at the Norwegian University of Science & Technology. This was performed using logged data from infrared motion sensor readings over a period of twenty nine days. Main finding suggests an average presence during working hours (8 AM – 3 PM) of 57 %. A utility patent developed and based on the twenty nine days of logged data shows the expected occupancy at any time during a normal working day. The second objective, sensor accuracy, is estimated based on comparison of logged data and manual registrations over two days. This information formed a basis for discussion of how well the infrared motion sensors performed. In this building, the conclusion is that ceiling mounted sensors perform better than wall mounted sensors. The third objective is to develop a computer model of the building and simulate it with two different ventilation systems. One simulation is of a CAV system, while the other is a VAV system that is able to adjust its minimum OA requirements according to the registered utility patent found in the first objective of the thesis. The computer model was developed with DOE2. The VAV system proved to perform far more efficient than the CAV system for a one year simulation. The hot water demand was reduced by 51%, cold water by 57%, and fan energy dropped by 76%.</p>

<p>This master thesis describes a quadratic programming model used to calculate the spot prices in an efficient multi-area power market. The model has been adapted to Northern Europe, with focus on Denmark West and the integration of large quantities of wind power. In the model, demand and supply of electricity are equated, at an hourly time resolution, to find the spot price in each area. Historical load values are used to represent demand which is assumed to be completely inelastic. Supply is modeled according to the type of generation: Thermal generators are represented by piecewise linear, upward sloping, marginal cost curves. Historical wind generation data is used to model the fluctuating wind power output, and wind power is considered to have zero marginal cost. Hydro power is modeled by one aggregate reservoir for Norway and one for Sweden; the marginal cost of hydro power is set as a function of the difference between the reservoir level and the historical median reservoir level. Additionally, decentral combined heat and power plants in Denmark are considered to operate irrespective of the market. Six separate price areas constitute the model: Denmark West, Denmark East, Norway, Sweden/Finland, Germany, and Central Europe. The areas are modeled as having no internal bottlenecks and are connected by tie-lines constrained by active power limits. This report quantifies the impact the installed wind power capacity has on the power price in Denmark West by scaling up the wind power output in the model. Because wind power has a marginal cost close to zero, it will force prices down. The effect will be most prominent during high wind speed hours in a power system with substantial amounts of wind power. Results show that the impact is modest; average power prices fall by only 10% if the installed wind power capacity is doubled, and thermal generation will set the power price in all hours until wind energy exceeds 50% of domestic demand in Denmark. Since prices fall the most during hours with high wind power output, income to wind turbine owners will decline quickly as the installed capacity becomes large. The effect is most pronounced at wind energy shares above 40%, thereafter the income -- per MWh sold -- falls rapidly. In absence of government subventions, this effect will limit the economically viable level of installed wind power capacity. Expansion of the cross-border transmission capacity and higher thermal generation costs can both help offset the income reduction to wind turbine owners from higher wind power penetration. Alone, a 30% increase in thermal generation costs can allow 50% of wind energy and still retain todays income to wind turbine owners. Use of the Norwegian hydro reservoirs to balance out fluctuations in wind power output is found to stabilize and reduce the price. This benefits both consumers and wind turbine owners in Denmark. Expansion of transmission capacity to Norway will further stabilize the price; a new 1000MW cable lets the Danish market easily accomodate 50% wind energy. With lower and more volatile prices as a result of high wind power penetration, a load can profit by being flexible. Water electrolysis is one such load; it uses electricity to produce hydrogen, and production can quickly be ramped up and down in accordance with the power price. Presently, steam methane reforming is the least expensive method of producing hydrogen, but with higher wind power penetration, electrolysis might become competitive. Using a previously developed model to assess the cost of electrolysis, in combination with the power market model developed here, this report finds that wind energy must exceed 85% of domestic demand in Denmark, combined with higher natural gas prices, for electrolysis to break even with steam methane reforming.</p>

<p>Nordel is the organisation for the Nordel synchronous system, held by the Nordic Transmission System Operators. In their work to harmonise the Nordic electricity markets they have agreed upon harmonising the Nordic balance management. This will imply three large changes, firstly the settlement of the production balance will be done by a 2-price settlement, (instead of the 1-price settlement in Norway), and secondly there will be a new intraday market for settling the balances after 12- 36 hours and before operating time. Finally the Balance Responsible Parties will have to take their share of the costs for operating the reserves. Paying a penalty through paying more in the regulating market than in the spot market is meant as an incentive for the market to maintain their power balance. This will help the system operator reduce their need to contract and use reserve power and consequently reducing total costs. These new regulations will reduce the net income from producers of wind and other power plants that cannot control their production, like run of river hydro power plants. The market for electricity is currently divided into three consecutive markets. Nord Pool fixes the price the day ahead of operation, followed by the intra-day market Elbas (not in Norway), where power is traded up to one hour before operation, and lastly, the balancing market which helps maintain the balance in the operational hour and settles the costs afterwards. The costs of balancing wind power production in the balancing market (1- price and 2-price) are analysed. Wind series from three Norwegian wind parks have been nominated to the spot market and the deviation settled in the balancing market, by the 1-price settlement as reference and the 2-price settlement. The nominations have been done to three different years; 2004, 2005 and 2006 in Norway, and park A is nominated to 2006 in Sweden and Denmark. It is assumed that the wind power production and the spot and regulating prices are independent of each-other. The resulting change in income with deviation compared to making no prediction error for a 100 MW wind farm is presented. The highest loss compared to making no prediction error is when making a common bid for park A and B (11 677 000 in 2006), followed by the common bid for park A+B with wind series from the second year(8 555 000 in 2006) and park A (7 733 000 in 2006) in Denmark. One of the best ways to integrate large amounts of wind energy is to improve the forecasting methods. In that way the production planning will go easier, and deviations and corresponding costs are reduced. The savings achieved by introducing a prediction tool equals 3 523 000, 4 122 000, 4 921 000 compared to the base case of the corresponding MAEs equal to 39%,30% and 18%. The smoothing effect emerges when nominating geographically spread parks in a group(Holtinnen, 2005). Three parks, that are separated by several 100 km, are nominated by a single BRP. The resulting costs compared to separate nominations are reduced by 31,5 %. This result requires that the wind farms is in the same price area, which they in this case does not. The result is interesting nevertheless as Nordel continuously seek to to invest in transmission capacity in order to create an efficient Nordic market for electricity. The Elbas market is mainly a market to reduce risks. If a deviation should occur it is likely that the best way for balancing it, will be in the regulating market. This is due to the principle of the merit order, which implies that the cheapest regulating power offered is used first. By comparing the data there were quite a few hours were the middle Elbas price was higher than the regulating price. In this sense it might have been wise to wait, although the lower regulating price may also have been a result of more energy being settled in the Elbas market, reducing the volume needed to be settled in the regulating market, and accordingly reducing the price.</p>

<p>In 2003 the European Commission introduced the Directive 2003/54/EC and Regulation 1228/2003/EC which increased the focus on the liberalization of the European electricity market. The international electricity trade has increased and created new challenges related to cross-border transmission and compensation mechanisms. The focus of the report has been to discuss the development of the electricity market in Europe, and the status of international exchange. The report also discusses the concept of cross-border trade and transit, and investigates a proposed ITC model and whether correct investment incentives are given. Price data from the main power exchanges in Europe indicate that the market is experiencing increasingly integration and efficiency. There has also been a trend towards market based congestion management methods. Regional markets have successfully developed in Spain and Portugal (the Iberian market) and between France, Belgium and The Netherlands (the Trilateral Market Coupling, TLC). Further plans for regional coupling are also underway (see chapter 5. The most common definition of transit is the one adopted by ETSO (Association of European Transmission System Operators), where transit is defined as the minimum between exports and imports. This definition could create opportunities for market participants to manipulate transit income (discussed in chapter 5.3). The Inter-TSO compensation (ITC) model used in this report is based on the With-and-Without transit algorithm. The model only focuses on costs and load flow, and do not include market incentives or evaluation of benefits. The model bases the compensation calculation on the transit term, which can lead to misguided identification of network responsibility. Two scenarios were compared with a base case scenario in order to identify possible investment incentives. The first scenario included a situation where one of the cross-border lines in the network was constrained. Results from this simulation indicate that the transmission system operators involved would experience increased ITC payment, and therefore not receive investment incentives. The TSOs involved would benefit from the bottleneck in form of increased revenue (assuming Cost-Of-Service regulation). In the second scenario an extra cross-border line was implemented, and the situation was compared to the base case. The results from this simulation show that the TSOs involved would receive a positive effect in form of reduced ITC cost. The ITC mechanism would in this case be in line with the European Commission’s Regulation 1228/2003/EC, and give the involved TSOs correct investment incentives. The lack of correlated results in these two cases indicates that the ITC mechanism (in this case modeled by the WWT algorithm) cannot be regarded as relevant from an investment incentive perspective (more information found in chapter 7.3).</p>

<p>Experimental studies as well as simulations have been performed on the Back-to-Back starting schemes low frequency-, partial frequency-, and soft -start-up. A Back-to-Back configuration of two synchronous machines has been established in the laboratory, upon which parameter estimation and start-up experiments have been performed. Extensive parameter estimation was conducted in order to replicate the laboratory machines in the simulation model as accurately as possible. This was done in order to verify the validity of the simulation model. Studies into the effects of inductance interconnecting the machines were made in the laboratory and in the simulation model. Effects of resistance and inertia were studied in the simulation model. It is concluded that the simulation model appears to be as reliable as is its input parameters. Discrepancies were found in line voltages, due to faulty implementation of field current replication. Full scale simulations using Motorformer parameters were performed in the simulation model, featuring low frequency- and soft -staring. The effects of an interconnecting cable were studied. It is concluded that low frequency starting appears to be most reliable and least violent starting method. However, it might be limited by the availability of a turbine. This is not the case for soft starting, which has a lower starting capability and is more violent to the motor damper- and field windings. Low frequency startig is the recommended starting method of the ones studied. Dynamic short circuit simulations were done on a fixed speed LNG-facility. The fixed speed alternative appears to be more stable when responding to a short circuit. This is because the motors contribute to upholding the voltage during a fault by delivering reactive power to the short circuit, and because the motors do not loose all torque as is the case for LCI drives when the voltage dip exceeds 20$%$. Further work is needed in up-scaling the experiments. A sophisticated simulation model should be established and its validity tested on the up-scaled experiments. Preliminary custom design of machines should be initiated depending on what starting scheme is chosen. Custom machine parameters should then be used in full scale simulation using the more sophisticated model.</p>

<p>This report is the results of the work on a master thesis concerning intelligent monitoring of hydro power stations. In the report two different types of computer software is investigated to find out whether they are suitable to make out a monitoring system capable of giving the user information about faults and unwanted operating conditions at an early stage. It is also investigated whether the software has proven the capability to detect faults and unwanted operating conditions. The different advantages and disadvantages of the two software products are commented and the two software products are compared. This report shows that the two software products are quite different. The software from Volve is software meant to construct an expert system capable of recognising faults from previous cases of faults. The software from SKF is software that gives intelligent machine diagnostics from analysis of vibration measurements in addition to measuring and trending of other variables. It also gives the user tools for analysing the root cause of faults influencing the bearing system of different industry machinery. This means that the software from SKF demands some involvement from the user to produce the best and most precise results. The expert system developed from the Volve software on the other hand is meant to present only results and advice to the user. The results from tests and simulations of the expert system developed by the Volve software are very limited. It is not possible to conclude which of the two software products is better before more tests of the Volve system is performed. In addition to the investigation of these two monitoring software products two different types of sensors are investigated. The sensors that are investigated are smoke sensors and sensors for detection of ultrasonic sound. Both types are commonly used in monitoring of industry processes similar to those in hydro power stations. These two sensors are capable of giving additional information to the monitoring system making it possible to detect faults that it is difficult to detect today. This is because the two sensor types perform measurements that the normal measuring equipment of today is incapable of. This will increase the information flow to the monitoring systems of hydro power stations making it possible to perform better and more precise monitoring.</p>

<p>Lowering the cost of wave energy conversion is an essential task for it to succeed as a future energy resource. In this work a converter, assumed cheaper than the regular back to back converter setting, have been investigated for a electric direct drive point absorber. Both experimental work and simulations are used in the analysis. In the experimental work, a permanent magnet generator with a 6-pulse diode rectifier, a DC-link and a DC/DC converter equivalent, was used. Steady state, dynamic and transient measurements were preformed and a simulation model was compared to the measurements. Good results were obtained and deviations were in general small, mostly +-3% for voltage and current measurements and +-8% for torque measurements. Based on transient measurements and simulations a general linearization of the system was made in order to obtain useful information about the system. A step up converter was used in the simulation and it demonstrated stable passive loading control. By using the information obtained by the linearization, the performance of the simulation model was improved by decreasing the DC-link capacitance. The modified simulation model had significant less torque ripple than the initial. The linearization model also can been used to identify time delay represented by the power take off unit in a wave energy converter. This will be done for a commercial size wave energy converter summer 2009.</p>