主催：JST/CREST，Vrije University, ALTERRA, IBPC

O estado de Rondônia tem passado por significativa mudança no uso e cobertura do solo nos últimos 30 anos em decorrência da ocupação e exploração dos recursos naturais. As transformações ocorridas na paisagem nos últimos anos, principalmente em decorrência da substituição das áreas de floresta por pastagem, tem grande influência no ciclo hidrológico e no clima local. Muitos são os estudos que buscam entender a dinâmica do clima e a biosfera na região Amazônica, porém, há muitas dificuldades de execução de medidas de superfície, que muitas vezes são pontuais e não representam a diversidade da região. Assim, uma alternativa para esses estudos é o uso de dados orbitais, que possibilitam a obtenção de informações da superfície com ampla cobertura espaço-temporal. Devido a complexidade da região Amazônica onde a área de estudos está inserida, a utilização, não só de dados provenientes de sensores orbitais como também de ferramentas de sensoriamento remoto é uma possibilidade para a estimativa e representação espacial dos fluxos de energia e de água. Nesse contexto, o presente estudo teve como objetivo estimar os componentes do balanço de energia e a evapotranspiração real diária por meio do algoritmo Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land - SEBAL e avaliar o quanto a substituição de áreas de floresta por outros tipos de uso do solo tem influenciado no balanço hidro-energético da região central do estado de Rondônia nos últimos 25 anos de uso e ocupação do solo. O estudo foi realizado com imagens multiespectrais de alta resolução (Landsat 5 e Lansat 7) da parte central de Rondônia (Cena 231/68), onde está localizada a bacia do rio Urupá e uma parte da bacia do rio Ji- Paraná, com abrangência temporal de 1987 a 2011. Dessa forma foi possível analisar o padrão espacial e temporal dos fluxos de energia e da evapotranspiração real diária e avaliar as estimativas realizadas por meio do algoritmo SEBAL para as diferentes classes de uso do solo. Os resultados mostraram que a área de estudo tem passado por significativa mudança na cobertura vegetal, tendo em vista que em um período de 25 anos a área de floresta foi reduzida em 69,1 % da sua área inicial. As análises realizadas com as variáveis estimadas pelo SEBAL no contexto de mudança do uso do solo, mostram que o modelo é sensível o suficiente para representar o quanto diferentes alterações no uso e cobertura do solo modificam os fluxos de energia na superfície. De maneira geral, a substituição de áreas de floresta por agropastoril causou um aumento no albedo da superfície, diminuição do saldo de radiação, aumento de temperatura da superfície, aumento do fluxo de calor no solo, aumento do fluxo de calor sensível, diminuição do fluxo de calor latente e, consequentemente, diminuição na evapotranspiração diária. Isso mostra que o impacto no clima local com a substituição da floresta por outros usos do solo está alterando o regime hidrológico e o clima local, tendo em vista que a evapotranspiração diminuiu em 33 % quando comparada com áreas de floresta. Considerando a extensão da área de floresta que foi perdida durante os últimos anos, o impacto pode ser ainda maior. / The state of Rondônia has undergone significant land use change in the last 30 years due to the occupation and exploitation of natural resources. The changes occurring in the landscape in recent years, mainly due to the replacement of forest areas for grazing, has strong influence on the hydrological cycle and climate. There are many studies that seek to understand the dynamics of climate and biosphere in the Amazon region, however, there are many difficulties for implementing surface measurements and often they are for specific sites and do not represent the whole ecosystem. Thus, an alternative for these studies is the use of satellite data, which allow to obtain information from the surface with reasonable spatialtemporal coverage. Due to the complexity of the Amazon region, the study area, the use satellite images is a possibility for the estimation of the energy fluxes on large scales current research. In this context, the aimed to estimate the energy balance components including daily evapotranspiration through the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land - SEBAL and evaluate how the replacement of forest areas other land use types has influenced the balance water and energy in the central region of the by Rondônia state in the last 25 years of use and occupation of land. The study was carried out with multispectral images (Landsat 5 and 7 Lansat) of the central part of Rondônia (scene 231/68), which is located Urupá River basin including part of the river basin Ji-Paraná, with temporal serie 1987-2011. Thus it was possible to analyze the spatial and temporal patterns of the energy floxes including actual daily evapotranspiration evaluating the SEBAL algorithm accuracy for different classes land use. The results showed that the study area has undergone significant change in vegetation cover, considering that in a period of 25 years the forest area was reduced by 69.1 % of its initial area. The analyzes carried out with the variables estimated by SEBAL in the context of land use change, show that the model is sensitive enough to detect these changes in terms of energy fluxes on the surface. In general, the replacement of forest areas by agriculture and pasture caused an increase in the surface albedo, net radiation reductions, increased surface temperature, increasing heat flux in the soil, increasing the of sensible heat flux, decline of latent heat flux and consequently, reduction in evapotranspiration rate. This shows that the impact on the local climate with the replacement of the forest by other land uses are changing the hydrological regime and the local climate, as the evapotranspiration decreased by 33 % when compared with areas of forest. Considering the extent of the forest area that was reduced during the last years, the impact may be even higher.

主催：JST/CREST，Vrije University, ALTERRA, IBPC

O estado de Rondônia tem passado por significativa mudança no uso e cobertura do solo nos últimos 30 anos em decorrência da ocupação e exploração dos recursos naturais. As transformações ocorridas na paisagem nos últimos anos, principalmente em decorrência da substituição das áreas de floresta por pastagem, tem grande influência no ciclo hidrológico e no clima local. Muitos são os estudos que buscam entender a dinâmica do clima e a biosfera na região Amazônica, porém, há muitas dificuldades de execução de medidas de superfície, que muitas vezes são pontuais e não representam a diversidade da região. Assim, uma alternativa para esses estudos é o uso de dados orbitais, que possibilitam a obtenção de informações da superfície com ampla cobertura espaço-temporal. Devido a complexidade da região Amazônica onde a área de estudos está inserida, a utilização, não só de dados provenientes de sensores orbitais como também de ferramentas de sensoriamento remoto é uma possibilidade para a estimativa e representação espacial dos fluxos de energia e de água. Nesse contexto, o presente estudo teve como objetivo estimar os componentes do balanço de energia e a evapotranspiração real diária por meio do algoritmo Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land - SEBAL e avaliar o quanto a substituição de áreas de floresta por outros tipos de uso do solo tem influenciado no balanço hidro-energético da região central do estado de Rondônia nos últimos 25 anos de uso e ocupação do solo. O estudo foi realizado com imagens multiespectrais de alta resolução (Landsat 5 e Lansat 7) da parte central de Rondônia (Cena 231/68), onde está localizada a bacia do rio Urupá e uma parte da bacia do rio Ji- Paraná, com abrangência temporal de 1987 a 2011. Dessa forma foi possível analisar o padrão espacial e temporal dos fluxos de energia e da evapotranspiração real diária e avaliar as estimativas realizadas por meio do algoritmo SEBAL para as diferentes classes de uso do solo. Os resultados mostraram que a área de estudo tem passado por significativa mudança na cobertura vegetal, tendo em vista que em um período de 25 anos a área de floresta foi reduzida em 69,1 % da sua área inicial. As análises realizadas com as variáveis estimadas pelo SEBAL no contexto de mudança do uso do solo, mostram que o modelo é sensível o suficiente para representar o quanto diferentes alterações no uso e cobertura do solo modificam os fluxos de energia na superfície. De maneira geral, a substituição de áreas de floresta por agropastoril causou um aumento no albedo da superfície, diminuição do saldo de radiação, aumento de temperatura da superfície, aumento do fluxo de calor no solo, aumento do fluxo de calor sensível, diminuição do fluxo de calor latente e, consequentemente, diminuição na evapotranspiração diária. Isso mostra que o impacto no clima local com a substituição da floresta por outros usos do solo está alterando o regime hidrológico e o clima local, tendo em vista que a evapotranspiração diminuiu em 33 % quando comparada com áreas de floresta. Considerando a extensão da área de floresta que foi perdida durante os últimos anos, o impacto pode ser ainda maior. / The state of Rondônia has undergone significant land use change in the last 30 years due to the occupation and exploitation of natural resources. The changes occurring in the landscape in recent years, mainly due to the replacement of forest areas for grazing, has strong influence on the hydrological cycle and climate. There are many studies that seek to understand the dynamics of climate and biosphere in the Amazon region, however, there are many difficulties for implementing surface measurements and often they are for specific sites and do not represent the whole ecosystem. Thus, an alternative for these studies is the use of satellite data, which allow to obtain information from the surface with reasonable spatialtemporal coverage. Due to the complexity of the Amazon region, the study area, the use satellite images is a possibility for the estimation of the energy fluxes on large scales current research. In this context, the aimed to estimate the energy balance components including daily evapotranspiration through the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land - SEBAL and evaluate how the replacement of forest areas other land use types has influenced the balance water and energy in the central region of the by Rondônia state in the last 25 years of use and occupation of land. The study was carried out with multispectral images (Landsat 5 and 7 Lansat) of the central part of Rondônia (scene 231/68), which is located Urupá River basin including part of the river basin Ji-Paraná, with temporal serie 1987-2011. Thus it was possible to analyze the spatial and temporal patterns of the energy floxes including actual daily evapotranspiration evaluating the SEBAL algorithm accuracy for different classes land use. The results showed that the study area has undergone significant change in vegetation cover, considering that in a period of 25 years the forest area was reduced by 69.1 % of its initial area. The analyzes carried out with the variables estimated by SEBAL in the context of land use change, show that the model is sensitive enough to detect these changes in terms of energy fluxes on the surface. In general, the replacement of forest areas by agriculture and pasture caused an increase in the surface albedo, net radiation reductions, increased surface temperature, increasing heat flux in the soil, increasing the of sensible heat flux, decline of latent heat flux and consequently, reduction in evapotranspiration rate. This shows that the impact on the local climate with the replacement of the forest by other land uses are changing the hydrological regime and the local climate, as the evapotranspiration decreased by 33 % when compared with areas of forest. Considering the extent of the forest area that was reduced during the last years, the impact may be even higher.

This thesis summarizes a senior project on the Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) Markarian 421 (Mrk 421). Observations of Gev and TeV flux with Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) and High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) were compared with previous reports and publications of flux analyses of the gamma-ray emission from Mrk 421. Power laws with exponential cutoffs made consistent fits to most SEDs in the GeV and TeV bands.

La connaissance de l’énergie transférée aux surfaces en contact avec un plasma basse pression est un paramètre clé pour le contrôle des procédés plasmas basse pression. Sa détermination permet une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes mis en jeu lors du dépôt ou la gravure de couches couches minces. Elle dépend des espèces du plasma (les ions, les électrons et les neutres) ainsi que de nombreux mécanismes physiques ou chimiques (réaction, condensation, émission radiative.). Elle peut être déterminée par la simulation du transport des particules dans le plasma, par des estimations de chaque contribution à partir des paramètres plasma ou tout simplement mesurée. Les études dédiées à sa mesure sont principalement basées sur l’utilisation d’une sonde calorimétrique, dont le principe sur l’interpolation du thermogramme mesuré. Ce type de méthode induit un long temps de mesure (2 min) et est source d’incertitudes. Un outil de diagnostic pour la mesure directe de l’énergie transférée a été développé au GREMI. Il est basé sur l’adaptation d’un capteur à thermopile initialement dédié à des mesures à pression atmosphérique. Cette thèse a donc été dédié à son développement et son utilisation pour l’étude de différents procédés plasmas basse pression : un propulseur spatial à effet Hall, un plasma poudreux, mais surtout de décharges magnétron. Des mesures ont été réalisées lors du dépôt de titane, d’aluminium, de TiO2 et de Al2O3. Les influences de la configuration magnétique de la cathode, du type de décharge, de l’échauffement des cibles, sur les conditions énergétiques à la surface du film en croissance ont été étudiées. / The knowledge of the energy flux during plasma/surface interactions is a key parameter for the control of low pressure plasmas, as sputter deposition or etching processes. The energy flux density at a surface depends on plasma species (ions, electrons, neutrals...) elementary processes (condensation, chemical reaction, radiative transfer). It can be obtained by carring out simulation of particule transport through the plasma, by the calculation of each energetic contribution from plasma parameters or by indirect or direct measurement. Most os works focused on the mesurement of the energy flux is based on the using of a calorimetric probe. This method is based on the calculation of the temporal temperature evolution. The main disadvantages are that this methods can cause error of about 10 % and the acquisition time of the thermogram which is about 2 min. A diagnostic tool which provide a direct measurement of the energy flux, with a good sensitivity and a good time resolution was designed in the GREMI.The aim of this PhD thesis was to developped this tool and use for the study of different plasma processes as capacitiv RF discharge, Hall effect plasma thruster and especially magnetron sputter deposition process. In this last process, the influence of the cathode magnetic configuration, the reactive gas, the dicharge type (HiPIMS, DCMS and pDCMS), the heating of the target was studied on the energy flux at the growing thin film duting the sputtering of a titanium and an aluminum target.

The barotropic tide dissipates a well established estimate of 2.5 TW of energy at the M2 frequency. Bottom topography is responsible for part of this dissipation, and the generation of the internal tide is also partly responsible. The fate of this energy is largely described by a cascade from large scales to small scales by non-linear wave-wave interactions where it gets dissipated. This thesis aims to investigate how the presence of mesoscale eddies (vortices) in the ocean affect the internal tide. Previous work has looked at the interaction of the barotropic tide with eddies. Krauss (1999) found that the interaction can produce a modulated internal tide, however a scaling analysis suggests that the effect may not be as strong as reported. The MITgcm is used to simulate internal wave generation by barotropic flow over topography and comparisons are made with Dr. Lamb's IGW model. Baroclinic eddies are analytically prescribed and then geostrophically adjusted also using the MITgcm. Finally, the two are combined, and the internal tide field is analysed with and without the presence of eddies of various magnitude and length scales. The results of this investigation do not find a strong transfer of energy between modes; the modal distribution of energy in the internal tide remains the same when an eddy is added. However, focusing and shadow beams of internal waves are produced in the wake of an eddy as the internal waves pass through it. The beams show very strong variations in intensity, vertically integrated energy flux can reduce almost to zero in the shadow regions and increase more than double in the focusing regions. Modal decomposition of the horizontal flow field reveals that mode 2 and 3 waves are most strongly affected by the eddies and contribute strongly to the formation of the beams. Mode 1 appears to be less affected by the eddy. The larger wavelength and faster group velocity of mode 1 supports the notion that the eddy interacts with it less.

The barotropic tide dissipates a well established estimate of 2.5 TW of energy at the M2 frequency. Bottom topography is responsible for part of this dissipation, and the generation of the internal tide is also partly responsible. The fate of this energy is largely described by a cascade from large scales to small scales by non-linear wave-wave interactions where it gets dissipated. This thesis aims to investigate how the presence of mesoscale eddies (vortices) in the ocean affect the internal tide. Previous work has looked at the interaction of the barotropic tide with eddies. Krauss (1999) found that the interaction can produce a modulated internal tide, however a scaling analysis suggests that the effect may not be as strong as reported. The MITgcm is used to simulate internal wave generation by barotropic flow over topography and comparisons are made with Dr. Lamb's IGW model. Baroclinic eddies are analytically prescribed and then geostrophically adjusted also using the MITgcm. Finally, the two are combined, and the internal tide field is analysed with and without the presence of eddies of various magnitude and length scales. The results of this investigation do not find a strong transfer of energy between modes; the modal distribution of energy in the internal tide remains the same when an eddy is added. However, focusing and shadow beams of internal waves are produced in the wake of an eddy as the internal waves pass through it. The beams show very strong variations in intensity, vertically integrated energy flux can reduce almost to zero in the shadow regions and increase more than double in the focusing regions. Modal decomposition of the horizontal flow field reveals that mode 2 and 3 waves are most strongly affected by the eddies and contribute strongly to the formation of the beams. Mode 1 appears to be less affected by the eddy. The larger wavelength and faster group velocity of mode 1 supports the notion that the eddy interacts with it less.

L'objectif principal de cette thèse est l'étude de la connexion entre la variabilité dans l'océan Pacifique équatorial et la circulation de subsurface le long des côtes du Pérou et du Chili, à des échelles de temps interannuelles à décennales. Les diagnostiques menés dans ce travail se basent sur un modèle régional océanique. L'accent est mis sur l'interprétation de la propagation verticale de la variabilité dans les couches intermédiaires de l'océan, où l'on trouve une intense zone de minimum d'oxygène (OMZ ; de l'anglais Oxygen Minimum Zone), et la relation de cette propagation verticale avec les processus advectifs et diffusifs. La propagation verticale est diagnostiquée à travers le flux vertical d'énergie associé à la propagation verticale de l'onde de Rossby extratropicale (ETRW; de l'anglais Extra-Tropical Rossby Wave). Aux échelles de temps interannuelles, les résultats montrent que 80% du flux vertical d'énergie dans l'océan Pacifique Sud-Est (SEP ; de l'anglais South-Eastern Pacific) est associé aux événements El Niño extraordinaires. Ce flux d'énergie s'étend vers l'Ouest en suivant les rayons théoriques WKB, avec une pente plus prononcée au fur et à mesure que la latitude augmente. Les analyses du flux d'énergie mettent aussi en évidence l'existence d'une modulation du flux d'énergie interannuel à l'échelle décennale, qui serait liée aux fluctuations décennales et inter-décennales dans le Pacifique équatorial. Une décomposition de la stratification en modes verticaux montre que le flux d'énergie associé à El Niño et aux fluctuations décennales se projette sur les trois premiers modes baroclines, ce qui confirme l'interprétation du flux d'énergie comme la propagation de l'onde de Rossby. Des tests de sensibilité menés avec un modèle linéaire ajusté aux conditions de la simulation montrent que la propagation d'énergie verticale pendant les événements El Niño est aussi impactée par la contribution des modes baroclines supérieurs. La variabilité méridienne/verticale du flux d'énergie vertical met en évidence une atténuation de l'amplitude le long de la trajectoire de l'onde, ce qui est interprété comme un flux diffusif de chaleur induit par la dissipation de l'onde. La variabilité de subsurface de la circulation à l'échelle saisonnière est aussi étudiée dans cette région à travers la ventilation de l'OMZ. Les résultats montrent que la variabilité saisonnière de l'OMZ en dessous de 400 m de profondeur possède des caractéristiques de propagation similaires à celles du flux d'énergie associé à l'ETRW annuelle, ce qui indique que l'ETRWpourrait influencer la variabilité de l'OMZ profonde, du moins à l'échelle saisonnière. Au-dessus de 400 m de profondeur, le processus dominant qui influence la ventilation de l'OMZ à l'échelle saisonnière est le transport d'oxygène par les tourbillons de méso-échelle. Dans ce travail, nous mettons en évidence la nature complexe de la variabilité de la circulation de subsurface dans le SEP. Nous montrons en particulier la connexion entre la circulation sous la thermocline extratropicale et les modes climatiques de variabilité du Pacifique équatorial. / The oceanic circulation in the subthermocline of the South Eastern Pacific remains poorly documented although this region is thought to play a key role in the climate variability owed to, in particular, the presence of an extended oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) that intervenes in the carbon and nitrogen cycle. The subthermocline in this region is also largely unmonitored and historical estimates of ocean heat content are mostly limited to the upper 500 m. In this thesis we document various oceanic processes at work in the subthermocline based on a regional modeling approach that is designed to take in account the efficient oceanic teleconnection from the equatorial region to the mid-latitudes, in particular at ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) timescales. The focus is on two aspects: (1) the seasonality of the turbulent flow and its role in modulating the OMZ volume off Peru, and (2) the planetary wave fluxes associated with interannual to decadal timescales. It is first shown that the vertical energy flux at interannual timescales can be interpreted as resulting from the vertical propagation of extra-tropical Rossby waves remotely forced from the equatorial region. This flux primarily results from extreme Eastern Pacific El Niño events, despite that a significant fraction of interannual Sea Surface Temperature (SST) variability in the tropical Pacific is also associated with Central Pacific El Niño events and La Niña events. Vertically propagating energy flux at decadal timescales is also evidenced in the model, which, like for the interannual flux, is marginally impacted by mesoscale activity. On the other hand, the wave energy beams experience a marked dissipation in the deep-ocean ( 2000 m) which is interpreted as resulting from vertical diffusivity. While the oxygen field within the OMZ appears to be influenced by the vertical propagation of isopycnals height anomalies, induced by the seasonal Rossby waves, the seasonality of the OMZ is shown to be dominantly associated with the seasonal change in the eddy flux at its boundaries. Implications of the results for the study of both the low-frequency variability of the OMZ and the Earth's energy budget are discussed.

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