In everyday decision making, people often face decisions with outcomes that differ on multiple dimensions. The tradeoff in preferences between magnitude of reinforcement, delay to reinforcement, and probability of reinforcement is a fundamental concern in the decision making literature. Yet, the relative impacts of probability of reinforcement, delay to reinforcement, and magnitude of reinforcement have not been studied together even though researchers have been advocating for the combined study of these variables for decades. The proposed project was designed to determine the relative impacts of magnitude of reinforcement and probability of reinforcement when they were both increasing over a 10 s delay to maximum charge. A first-person shooter video game was adapted for the study of choice when outcome magnitude and probability of reinforcement were increasing either simultaneously (Experiment 1) or separately (Experiment 2) over a 10 s delay. Experiment 1 showed that participants waited longer to ensure a greater probability of reinforcement than to ensure a greater magnitude of reinforcement. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that probability of reinforcement had a stronger impact on behavior than magnitude of reinforcement when they were increasing separately. These experiments indicated that probability of reinforcement outweighed magnitude of reinforcement by a ratio of approximately 3:1.

Problem och syften När projekt befinner sig i extrema miljöer är betydelsen av ett fördelaktigt beslutsfattande avgörande. Om projektdeltagarna inte lyckas ta genomtänkta beslut finns det risk för att projektet misslyckas vilket involverar allvarliga konsekvenser. Med hjälp av denna studie vill vi studera beslutsfattandet i projekt i extrema miljöer: Hur påverkas beslutsfattandet av extrema miljöer? Vi har funnit att ett antal parametrar påverkar projekts förmåga att ta beslut. Vårt syfte, som är uppdelat i ett huvudsyfte och ett praktiskt syfte, handlar således om att analysera hur beslutsfattandet påverkas i extrema miljöer utifrån de tre parametrarna Grupptänk, Riskhantering och Eskalerande engagemang. I huvudsyftet ingår även att vi ämnar utveckla en modell. Vårt delsyfte innebär att vi önskar förstå beslutsfattande för att ge ett bidrag till projekt i extrema miljöer. Metod Vi har skrivit på uppdrag av forskningsgruppen TripleED som har gett oss en stor mängd kvalitativ data rörande en bergsklättringsexpedition på K2 som är att likställas med ett projekt i en extrem miljö. Vi har antagit ett hermeneutiskt perspektiv i vår studie, eftersom vi med hjälp av det sekundära materialet vill tolka och förstå (Olsson & Sörensen, 2011, s. 162) beslutsfattandet inom projekt i extrema miljöer. Trots att vi har genomfört en studie baserad på kvalitativ data strävar vi efter ett deduktivt angreppssätt eftersom vi är intresserade av att undersöka vår sociala verklighet utifrån teorier, (Bryman & Bell, 2011, s. 11,13) samtidigt som vår studie har inslag av induktion. Teorier Vi har utgått från teorier som berör Beslutsprocessen där vi har skapat vår egen modell utifrån tre olika beslutsmodeller. I kombination har vi använt oss av teorier som berör de tre parametrarna Grupptänk, Riskhantering och Eskalerande engagemang för att vidare förstå hur de påverkar beslutsfattande i extrema miljöer. Vi sammanfattar det teoretiska kapitlet med hjälp av en modell som presenterar att parametrarna påverkar beslutsfattande. Med utgångspunkt i modellen genomförde vi sedan vår empiriska undersökning för att se hur beslutsfattandet påverkas. Slutsats Vi har funnit att Beslutsprocessen är kortare än vad teorin föreslår i projekt som befinner sig i extrema situationer. När det inte finns tillräckligt med tid att ta överlagda beslut kan projektdeltagare istället behöva förbereda Beslutsprocessen vilket reducerar risken att ogenomtänkta beslut tas vid kritiska situationer. Vi har kommit fram till att de tre parametrarna har olika påverkan på beslutsfattandet i extrema miljöer och sambandet mellan dem och Beslutsprocessen har vi synliggjort i en slutgiltig modell. Vidare kunde vi även konstatera att vår slutsats uppfyller kraven för trovärdighet vilket medför att vår studie är användbar för framtida projekt.

This article evaluates Tourinho's (1979) work as one of the earliest contributors to the real options literature. His model pioneered the application of risk neutrality to uncertain investments, but his originality of introducing an option-holding cost albeit to overcome the extraction paradox is rarely imitated. We claim that the combination of a convenience yield and an option-holding cost produces a more satisfying representation. Moreover, variations in the holding cost give rise to a host of investment decisions ranging from the standard real option solution for a zero-holding cost to a net present value solution for an infinite-holding cost. Not only does the holding cost mediate between these two poles, but it provides the option seller (usually a landowner or a government) with a policy instrument for influencing the extraction timing and thus the extraction profit of the option buyer. We derive the holding cost that optimizes the landowner's combined value of the option premium, holding costs and eventual royalties. View all references) work as one of the earliest contributors to the real options literature. His model pioneered the application of risk neutrality to uncertain investments, but his originality of introducing an option-holding cost albeit to overcome the extraction paradox is rarely imitated. We claim that the combination of a convenience yield and an option-holding cost produces a more satisfying representation. Moreover, variations in the holding cost give rise to a host of investment decisions ranging from the standard real option solution for a zero-holding cost to a net present value solution for an infinite-holding cost. Not only does the holding cost mediate between these two poles, but it provides the option seller (usually a landowner or a government) with a policy instrument for influencing the extraction timing and thus the extraction profit of the option buyer. We derive the holding cost that optimizes the landowner's combined value of the option premium, holding costs and eventual royalties.

Escalation of commitment refers to the tendency of decision makers to continue with failing courses of action (Staw, 1981). An abundance of research has shown that decision makers persistently escalate commitment to less favorable alternatives when making a series of decisions related to a single course of action. This decision making fallacy occurs across a wide range of personal and professional settings, and has significant implications for management and policy. There has been a wealth of research suggesting various explanations for why escalating commitment occurs across a wide range of situations; however, there have been relatively few studies investigating factors that may reduce this type of irrational decision making. Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand emotional information in oneself and others and use that information to guide one's thinking and behavior (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). This study investigated the previously unexplored relationship between emotional intelligence and escalation of commitment decisions. It also examined whether anticipatory emotions and risk perceptions mediate the relationship between emotional intelligence and escalation of commitment. It was hypothesized that individuals who have higher emotional intelligence will be less likely to commit additional funds to unfavorable courses of action, and that this relationship is mediated by anticipatory emotions and risk perceptions. These hypotheses were tested using a scenario based experiment with 110 undergraduate students at a large Midwestern university. Escalation of commitment was measured using Staw's (1976) "Adams & Smith Financial Decision Case" (p.30). Emotional intelligence was measured using the 33-item emotional intelligence scale (Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden, & Dornheim, 1998) The relationship between emotional intelligence and escalation of commitment was tested using regression analysis, and the mediating relationships (anticipatory emotions, risk perceptions) were tested using Baron and Kenny's (1986) mediation procedure. Findings from the study reveal several practical and theoretical contributions. Results suggest that emotional intelligence is not significantly related to escalation of commitment. However, anticipatory emotions were shown to play an important role in one's tendency to escalate commitments. Those who anticipated more positive emotions about finishing the course of action were significantly more likely to escalate commitments toward its completion. In addition, managerial experience was significant in reducing one's tendency to escalate commitments. Results, strengths, weaknesses and future research directions are discussed in relation to the current study.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment at the University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture (Sustainable Energy Efficient Cities) / Whereas the escalation of energy costs in South Africa over the past 5-years has been systematically reported, the extent to which low-income urban households are coping with the escalation has not been studied. Based on ethnographic data from Etwatwa in Ekurhuleni and secondary data from the Department of Energy and Statistics South Africa, the study evaluates the extent to which ongoing energy poverty mitigation programmes under FBE (Free Basic Electricity) and FBAE (Free Basic Alternative Energy) are facilitating how such households cope with the escalating costs. One of the key findings of the study is that FBE is not only inadequate for beneficiary household needs but also fails to accommodate large family sizes whose consumption goes beyond the set threshold of 450kWh/month. Since FBAE is only available for households not yet connected to the grid, the programme would not serve as a complementary intervention for households not benefiting from FBE due to consumption beyond the threshold. Based on the key finding of inadequacy of existing mitigation interventions (declining affordability of electricity, unresponsiveness of FBE to large-family size and the barrier to accessing FBAE while connected to grid) the study finds that energy poverty among low-income households and communities is deepening. As coping strategies, households resort to switching to alternative combustible fuels like paraffin, wood, coal, and solid waste which leads to indoor and outdoor air-pollution with related respiratory illnesses and under severe situations they resort to suppressing demand through options such foregoing cooked meals, irregular bathing/cleaning and space-heating in winter. The findings also allowed the study to critique the energy ladder model on its assumptions on linear energy carrier transitions in line with improved incomes of low-income households. In particular, the study finds that even as incomes of affected households improve, an ever increasing share of the income goes towards covering the escalating energy costs but still never managing to close the affordability gap for clean energy thus reinforcing a vicious cascade in energy poverty In order to systematically mitigate these escalating patterns of energy poverty, the study recommends the distribution of renewable technology through a more innovative FBAE policy which would allow municipalities, national government and other stakeholders to commit to more equitable long-term investments in energy efficiency and renewable energy interventions for such households. Key words: escalating energy costs, coping mechanism, energy poverty, Free Basic Electricity, Free Basic Alternative Energy

Introduction et objectifs : Alors que l'effet moteur de la lévodopa (L-dopa) dans la maladie de Parkinson (MP) est clair et établi, son effet sur la cognition demeure incertain. Les troubles cognitifs ont un impact important sur la qualité de vie et les études évaluant l'effet cognitif de ce médicament donnent des résultats encore divergents. L’objectif primaire de cette étude pilote est d’observer l’impact des doses cliniques de lévodopa sur la cognition. Un second objectif sera d'établir une courbe dose-réponse pour observer les différences potentielles. Méthodes : Cinq patients avec MP ont été évalués à l’aide de 2 tests cognitifs (CPT-II et Stroop) et 2 tests moteurs (Finger Tapping et UPDRS-III) en OFF (sevrage minimal de 12 heures) et en ON avec des doses croissantes de lévodopa (commençant à 50mg avec une augmentation de dose de 50mg par visite) jusqu’à l'observation d'une performance cognitive optimale ou d'effets secondaires. Une administration répétée des tests cognitifs a été faite à la première visite pour limiter l’effet d’apprentissage. Résultats : Le temps de réaction (RT) mesuré en millisecondes au CPT-II a augmenté (médiane 3.03%) après la prise de médicament alors que les erreurs ont légèrement diminué (médiane -9.92%). Au Stroop, l’effet d’interférence évalué selon les changements au temps d’inhibition mesuré en secondes était légèrement moindre sans changement dans les erreurs. Avec les doses prescrites, le RT a augmenté de 3,50% et le nombre d’erreurs est resté stable alors que les doses inférieures ont eu une moindre augmentation du RT tout en diminuant les erreurs. Dans le Stroop, les doses faibles ont amélioré le temps de près de 19% alors que les doses prescrites ont quant à elles diminué les erreurs. Malgré une certaine variabilité, la courbe dose-réponse indique que les erreurs diminuaient aux doses faibles et fortes dans le CPT-II alors que le RT augmentait généralement, ce qui pourrait indiquer un style de performance plus prudent. L’effet de la lévodopa sur l’interférence dans le Stroop variait légèrement sans tendances fixes mis à part le bénéfice observé par les doses faibles. Une importante variabilité a été observée dans les évaluations motrices entre les sujets ainsi qu'au sein du même sujet. Conclusion : Ces résultats indiquent qu’en général, le médicament ne semble pas avoir d’effet néfaste important sur l’attention et les fonctions exécutives évaluées auprès de ce groupe de patients parkinsoniens. L'effet cognitif des doses plus faibles semble leur être bénéfique et meilleur que les doses cliniquement prescrites. La relation dose-réponse démontre un effet cognitif variable de la lévodopa entre les doses, n'indiquant toutefois pas de tendances claires. / Background and objectives: While levodopa’s effect on motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease (PD) has been largely characterized, its cognitive effect still remains without definite conclusion. Since cognitive impairment is an important feature of PD that impacts patients’ quality of life, it is important to establish levodopa’s effect on cognitive functions. Multiple studies regarding this subject remained without specific consensus. The main goal pursued in this study is to observe the effect of clinical doses of levodopa on attention and executive functions. A dose-response curve is also made with the escalating doses evaluated. Methods: Five PD patients were investigated OFF (minimal withdrawal of 12 hours) and ON levodopa (starting dose of 50mg escalating by 50mg per visit) with 2 cognitive (CPT-II and Stroop) and 2 motor (finger tapping and UPDRS-III) tests until reaching an optimal cognitive performance or showing signs of side effects. Practice sessions of the cognitive tests were done at the first visit. Results: While reaction time (RT) in milliseconds increased (median 3.03%), errors slightly decreased (median -9.92%) after medication intake in the CPT-II. Errors however did not change in the Stroop while time evaluated in seconds decreased. The CPT-II showed slowing at the prescribed doses of levodopa (3.5%) while lower doses improved errors with less increase of the RT. These small doses also improved the performance in the Stroop test with a 19% reduction in time while the prescribed doses improved errors instead. The dose-response curve indicates a reduction of errors in the CPT-II for low and high doses while time usually increased, showing a more cautious style. Besides the beneficial effect of low doses, the dose-response curve for the Stroop test did not show any specific tendencies in levodopa’s effect on interference. An important variability was observed in motor evaluations between and within subjects. Conclusion: These results indicate that levodopa does not seem to have an important deleterious effect on attention and executive functions evaluated in this group of parkinsonian patients and that low doses seem to even be beneficial and better than the ones usually taken by the patients. The dose-response curve showed that the cognitive effect of levodopa for these patients varies between the different doses without being clear on the tendencies.