The zooplankton communities of the Mdloti and Mhlanga estuaries were studied over a 13-month period (March 2002-March 2003). Monthly daytime samples were collected from both estuaries at the lower, middle and upper reaches using a WP-2 net and a hyperbenthic sled. Throughout the study period, the Mdloti Estuary experienced nine breachings, while the Mhlanga experienced 16 such events. Significant differences in zooplankton abundance were observed between the two estuaries (F I, 73 = 5.2; P<0.05), with the Mdloti consistently exhibiting higher values than the Mhlanga. No significant differences were, however, observed in zooplankton biomass between the two estuaries (U = 634; P>0.05). At the Mdloti, zooplankton abundance ranged from 20 ind.m-3 to 5.4 x 106 ind.m-3 , while at the Mhlanga this ranged from 76 ind.m-3 to 2.0 x 105 ind.m-3 • Zooplankton biomass ranged from 0.08 mg.m-3 (OW) to 2010 mg.m-3 (OW) at the Mdloti, and from 0.18 mg.m-3 (OW) to 1210 mg.m-3 (OW) at the Mhlanga. A one-way ANOV A revealed significant differences in zooplankton abundance between the open and the closed phase, both at the Mdloti (FI, 30 = 59; P<0.05) 'and the Mhlanga (FI, 38 = 7.3; P<0.05), with the closed phase exhibiting consistently higher values than the open. Similarly, biomass was significantly higher during the closed than the open phase, both at the Mdloti (U= 16.5; P<O.OI) and the Mhlanga (U= 88, P<O.O 1). This pattern may be attributed to the stability achieved by these systems during periods of mouth closure, when the estuaries exhibit less freshwater input and a restricted exchange of water with the sea. At the Mdloti, zooplankton biomass (OW) was positively correlated to both phytoplankton (r= 0.36) and microphytobenthos biomass (r = 0.41). At the Mhlanga, zooplankton biomass (OW) was only positively correlated to phytoplankton biomass (r = 0.45) The most abundant taxa at the Mdloti during the open phase were Pseudodiaptomus hessei and copepod nauplii, each contributing 38% and 32% of the total stock, respectively. During the closed phase, however, rotifers were by far the dominant taxon, contributing 82% of the total zooplankton abundance. These were followed by cope pod nauplii with 16%. At the Mhlanga, the most abundant groups during the open phase were again the copepod nauplii (89%) and P. hessei (7 %), while the closed phase was dominated mainly by caridean larvae (39%) and copepod nauplii (26%). The dominance of P. hessei during the open phase of both estuaries may be attributed to the pioneering nature of this species. The dominance of rotifers at the Mdloti during the closed phase may have been due to the freshwater conditions that prevailed in this estuary as a result of prolonged mouth closure. The concentration of copepod nauplii increased dramatically 2-4 weeks after major rain events, possibly due to the hatching of dormant eggs in response to freshwater pulses. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the population dynamics of the fishes associated with a small (17.5 hectares) temporarily open/closed estuary on the south east coast of South Africa. The results are based on the findings of an intensive sampling programme conducted over a period of four years in the East Kleinemonde estuary (33° 32' S : 27° 03' E). By adopting a quantitative approach, this study addresses the need for information on estuarine-associated fish population sizes, standing stock (biomass) estimates and productivity. The ichthyoplankton assemblage in the surf zone adjacent to the mouth of the estuary was dominated by postflexion larvae representing at least 21 taxa in 14 families. Rhabdosargus holubi of sizes ranging between 9 mm and 21 mm BL was the most abundant species with a mean density of 7.3 individuals per 100 m'. This species, which accounted for 77.6% of the catch composition, was recorded throughout the year but revealed a distinct peak in abundance in spring (August - September). The ichthyofaunal community within the East Kleinemonde estuary was dominated by juvenile marine-spawning species and typical of a warm temperate southern African estuary. A total of 30 species in 17 families was recorded, including the endangered estuarine pipefish Syngnathus watermeyeri. Multivariate analyses (classification and ordination) of the catch assemblages revealed a high degree of similarity (> 70%) throughout the estuary, with two distinct groups being identified on the basis of substratum type. The sampling stations near the mouth with a sandy substratum were distinguished from all other sampling sites in the estuary. The dominant estuarine-spawning species were represented by all life-history stages, suggesting that they bred successfully in the estuary. This group was numerically and gravimetrically dominated by the two zooplanktivorous shoaling species Gilchristella aestuaria and Atherina breviceps with density extrapolated population size estimates of 420 973 and 198 275 individuals, and biomass estimates of 1.6 and 0.6 g m⁻² respectively. The total population size of all estuarine-spawning species with a mean biomass 00.4 g m⁻² was estimated at 754 217 individuals. Population size estimates of the marine-spawning species were calculated using data obtained from three independent mark-recapture experiments. The assumptions for the mark-recapture analyses were adequately met and it was concluded that the techniques provided reliable estimates of population size. However, estimates obtained from density extrapolation revealed enormous variability and were considered to be unreliable. The total population size was estimated at 63 342, 18 592 and 13 5 192 during the three mark-recapture experiments respectively. The numerically dominant species during all three experiments was Rhabdosargus holubi. Biomass production of the marine-spawning species was evaluated over a 123 day census period when population sizes and estimates of growth rates were known. Productivity for all fishes with a standing stock of 26.2 g m⁻² was calculated at 4.5 g m⁻² month01 Rhabdosargus holubi accounted for more than 75% of the total marine fish productivity. This study draws attention to the success of Rhabdosargus holubi in the East Kleinemonde estuary, which is ascribed to aspects of its biology. These include an extended breeding season, the ability to recruit into the estuary under adverse open mouth conditions and its omnivorous food habits. The dominance of this migratory species suggests that it plays an important role in the transfer of energy to the coastal marine environment when the mouth of the East Kleinemonde estuary opens. Predation by birds and a dominant piscivorous fish (Lichia amia) was quantitatively assessed over a period of two years. Monthly food consumption by all piscivorous birds revealed large temporal variability, ranging from 32 to 466 kg month-I An unusual invasion of Cape cormorants during the winter of 1994 accounted for large scale mortality (2246 kg of fish) over a relatively short period. The predatory impact of this episodic event was reflected in the findings of the fish mark-recapture experiments, which revealed a 70% reduction in the total population of marine-spawning fishes (above a certain minimum size) in the estuary subsequent to this invasion. Monthly food consumption by the Lichia amia population in the estuary was calculated at 68 and 58 kg month-I for two distinct time periods when the population size was known. These findings suggest that this species is the top piscivorous predator in the East Kleinemonde estuary. Finally, the findings of this study highlight the temporal variability of fish populations within a single estuary. It is suggested that predation and estuary mouth conditions are the main factors influencing the abundance (and its variability) of individual species in the East Kleinemonde estuary.

The ichthyofauna of three small Natal estuaries, the Mhlanga, Damba and Zotsha was sampled over a period of two years. A total of 68 kinds of fishes representing 24 families, 39 genera and 56 species were captured during this study. Forty seven kinds of fishes were recorded in the Mhlanga of which Gilchristella aestuaria,Oreochromis mossambicus, Valamugil cunnesius, Valamugil sp. and juvenile mugilids numerically dominated. In terms of biomass, O. mossambicus, V. cunnesius, Liza alata, Myxus capensis and Mugil cephalus dominated the ichthyofauna of the Mhlanga. In the Damba, 24 kinds of fishes were recorded. The most abundant fishes captured were Glossogobius callidus, M. capensis and O. mossambicus. M. capensis, M. cephalus, O. mossambicus and G. callidus dominated the fish biomass captured in the Damba. A total of 56 kinds of fishes were recorded in the Zotsha during this study. The ichthyofauna of the Zotsha was numerically dominated by juvenile mugilids, G. aestuaria, O. mossambicus, Rhabdosargus holubi, Terapon jarbua, Ambassis productus and G. callidus. The species which dominated the fish biomass in the Zotsha were O. mossambicus, L. alata, Valamugil robustus, Valamugil buchanani, M. capensis, M. cephalus and V. cunnesius. Classifying the species captured according to whether they were resident estuarine species, freshwater species, estuarine-dependent marine species and marine species revealed that the first three groups were all well represented in the systems. The only system in which marine species made any significant contribution to the ichthyofauna was the Zotsha. Oreochromis mossambicus was the dominant freshwater species in all three estuaries during this study. Gilchristella aestuaria and Glossogobius callidus were the principal estuarine species in the Mhlanga and the Damba respectively. Both G. aestuaria and G. callidus were the dominant estuarine species captured in the Zotsha. The principal estuarine-dependent marine fishes captured in the Mhlanga were V. cunnesius, Valamugil sp., juvenile mugilids, M. capensis, M. cephalus and L. alata. In the Damba, M. capensis and M. cephalus were the dominant estuarine-dependent marine species and in the Zotsha juvenile mugilids, R. holubi, T. jarbua, A . productus, M. capensis, V. cunnesius, V. robustus, M. cephalus and L. alata predominated. The results of this study indicate that the estuaries are dominated at different periods by different assemblages of fishes. This is linked to the spawning and migration patterns of the various species as well as the hydrological regime of each estuary. During the winter these systems are normally closed with relatively deep waters and high food resource and habitat availability. Freshwater and estuarine species mainly inhabit the upper reaches of the systems while estuarine-dependent marine species mainly occupy the middle and lower reaches and dominate the fish community. When these systems open with the onset of the spring/summer rains, adult and sub-adult estuarine-dependent marine species emigrate to the marine environment and juveniles begin recruiting into the systems. Spring is also the peak breeding period of resident estuarine and freshwater species, resulting in an increase in the contribution of these fishes to the overall population during this period. When closed estuaries open many of them drain and this results in the fishes concentrating in the lower reaches of the system where moderate water depths are present, thus further contributing to an increase in the proportion of freshwater and estuarine species in this region. The breaching of closed estuaries also results in a slump in food resources and habitat availability. Competition and possible increased vulnerability to avian predation (due to the shallow nature of the systems), may contribute to a decrease in the proportion of estuarine and freshwater species in summer. The prolonged spawning and recruitment of 0+ juveniles of estuarine-dependent marine species results in an increase in the proportion of these fishes present in the estuaries during summer. In autumn, these systems normally close, water levels rise and available food resources and habitat increase. This allows the redistribution of freshwater and estuarine species upstream, leaving estuarine-dependent marine species to dominate the middle and lower reaches. Although temporarily open/closed estuaries along the Natal coast may not be as diverse as permanently open estuaries in terms of their ichthyofauna, their importance must not be underestimated since by providing a continuous sequence of sheltered habitats along the coast they may contribute significantly to the viability of estuarine-dependent marine fish stocks.

The spatial and temporal pattern of ichthyofaunal community composition in relation to selected physico-chemical (temperature and salinity) and biological variables (chlorophyll-a and zooplankton) was investigated at ten stations in the temperate temporarily open/closed Kasouga estuary. In addition, the food web structure in the estuary was investigated using stable carbon isotope analysis. Results of the 5 metre seine net survey indicated that ichthyofaunal composition and biomass in the Kasouga estuary was largely determined by seasonality and mouth condition. Maximum abundance and biomass of ichthyofauna was recorded during summer or during those periods when overtopping occurred. Overtopping coincided with the recruitment of marine estuarine dependant species, which dominated the catches both numerically and in biomass. The recruitment of these species resulted in an increase in diversity of the ichthyofaunal community. There were no significant spatial patterns in the distribution of smaller ichthyofauna (<50mm SL) identified in Bray-Curtis similarity matrices using cluster analysis (Primer 5 v5.2.4). Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed that there were no significant correlations between abundance and biomass of ichthyofauna and selected physico-chemical and biological variables other than salinity (P>0.05 in all other cases). There were two distinct spatial patterns in the distribution of the larger ichthyofauna (>50mm SL). These corresponded to a grouping associated with the mouth region and a grouping associated with the remaining regions of the estuary. Stable isotope analysis indicated that the primary source of carbon utilised by the ichthyofauna of the Kasouga estuary was derived from the channel, most likely microphytobenthic algae. The contributions of the riparian and salt marsh vegetation to the total carbon flow appear to be minimal.

Threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshazvytscha) co-occur during high tide in tidal channels of the Fraser River estuary. Given the high density of resident stickleback, there is the potential for strong interactions within and between the two species. Inter- and intra-specific interactions were tested by means of laboratory experiments, with support from field studies. Laboratory experiments placed stickleback and chinook in mixed and single species groups. The levels of aggressiveness were quantified, along with prey choice between surface (Drosophila), midwater (Artemia), and benthic (Tubifex) prey; microdistribution was also recorded. The experiments demonstrated that stickleback were highly aggressive towards chinook, and would drive them away from optimal feeding territories. Chinook consumed surface prey only when tested with stickleback, exploiting benthic and midwater prey when feeding alone. Stickleback demonstrated no significant difference in diet between single and mixed species trials, which is consistent with the supposition of strongly asymmetrical competition for food and space. Field data lend further support to this premise; a marked difference observed in diet suggests microhabitat partitioning between the two species, with stickleback feeding on benthos and chinook largely consuming surface prey. This thesis proposes that interactive segregation is an important process between sympatric stickleback and juvenile chinook in estuarine tidal channels and might have important implications for Fraser chinook stocks. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

Inputs, transfer processes, and storage characteristics of water and sediment have been investigated in a 40-km² estuarine system on the central Yukon coast. The setting is transgressive, microtidal, and high-latitude (69°N). The Babbage Estuary system can be subdivided into fluvial, tidal-distributary, delta-plain, intertidal, lagoon, marginal-supratidal, and barrier subsystems, each associated with one or more distinctive depositional environments and characteristic lithofacies assemblages. The structure of the system has been examined in terms of links between subsystems and overall system response to input perturbations. Although the propagation of tide and surge within the estuary may be treated as a quasi-linear stochastic process, transfers of fluvial water and sediment through the system are highly non-linear. Furthermore, the parameters of the system change dramatically on an annual cycle. Inputs and associated system responses are dominated in the short run by seasonal- and synoptic-scale variance, the former reflecting major seasonal adjustments in the phase distribution, circulation process, iand input regime of the estuary. The annual salinity cycle, with a range of at least 60 ppt, exhibits a short reaction and long relaxation response to major snowmelt runoff inputs in May or June, when salt water is flushed completely out of the estuary. Wind-generated waves are effectively absent from the system during 8-9 months of the year, but play a major role during the open-water season. Although direct transport of sediment by ice is relatively unimportant, ice effects are pervasive; they include, in addition to restriction of winter runoff and surface wave generation, creation of hypersaline conditions, control of the sedimentologically important flood events on deltaic supratidal flats, enhanced rates of coastal recession due to thermal degradation of ground ice, and production of distinctive thermokarst morphology on supratidal surfaces. Water level, storage volume, salinity, and suspended sediment series during the open-water season in the lagoon are dominated by synoptic-scale wind effects. In the delta, the major synoptic-scale anomalies of sediment concentration are related to storm runoff. Fluvial clastic sediment inputs to the estuary exceed 10⁸ kg A⁻¹ almost an order of magnitude greater than the estimated littoral transport input. More than 97% of the fluvial input may occur in June; of this, approximately half may be exported directly from the system. At long time scales, the estuarine system has been dominated by rising sea level and coastal recession; Holocene climatic fluctuations may also have been important. A transgressive sequence has developed, including various distinctive features, notably the absence or limited development of aeolian, backbarrier-margin, tidal-delta, and intertidal marsh facies, a largely afaunal intertidal component, and deltaic deposits with poorly developed levees and abundant lake basins. The basal fluvial component includes a sinuous gravel channel assemblage of a hitherto poorly documented type. The Babbage Estuary barrier sequence is primarily transgressive, but incorporates localized elements of progradational and inlet-migration models. Examples of major transgressive, progradational, and inlet-fill barrier sequences occur in close proximity on the central Yukon coast. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Estuaries are vital environmental and economic resources, providing habitat for thousands of species, absorbing runoff, and supporting recreation and commerce. Yet, despite their importance, estuaries are threatened by human activities. Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis and Cross Spectral techniques were used in the analysis and prediction of estuarine morphology. The estuaries selected for study were Suisun Bay, CA and Mobile Bay, AL. It was found that EOF is an effective and efficient technique to analyze morphology, a coupling with cross spectral methods such as Fourier Transformation (FFT) resulted in determination of forcing functions responsible for imparting variance to the bathymetry. In both the estuaries it was found that the first two eigenvalues represented almost 80% of the morphological/bathymetric dataset. The second eigenfunction was found to be closely dependent on the freshwater inflows to the estuaries. EOF analysis on Suisun Bay revealed that the bay is depositional particularly in the shallow bays of Honker and Grizzly, whereas the main channels as well as Carquinez Straits maintained their depths throughout the period studied. Utilizing a Cross spectral technique, Amplitude Response Function (ARF), temporal eigenfunctions for the bay were determined for year 2100. The temporal eigenfunctions were predicted for cases where river inflows to the bay were varied by 1 standard deviation unit. These predicted eigenfunction values combined with the eigenvalues resulted in the recovery of predicted depths for year 2100. It was found that Suisun Bay remains depositional through the year 2100 and maintains depths in the main channels as well as Carquinez Straits. This depositional behavior results in the decrease of bay volume to almost 40% of the volume in 1989. EOF analysis on Mobile Bay revealed that the bay is predominantly depositional except in the navigation channel and the shoreline of the Bay. The navigation channel maintaining it depth is attributed to the regular dredging carried to facilitate shipping. The second temporal eigenfunction showed a close correlation with river inflows as in the case of Suisun Bay. However, a cross correlation performed on the second temporal eigenfunction and inflows revealed that the response of the eigenfunction is perturbed by almost 9 years, as opposed to 6 to 9 years for Suisun Bay. An ARF on the temporal eigenfunctions combined with a reverse EOF resulted in the formation of bathymetric datasets for the year 2100 for inflows variation of 1 standard deviation. It was revealed that increasing the flows results in an increase of bay volume by approximately 30% and a decrease in flows results in a loss of volume by approximately 20%.

A região costeira do Brasil é historicamente impactada por atividades antrópicas, que liberam contaminantes, como os metais pesados. Nos estuários de Paranaguá (PR), Cananéia e Santos (SP), tais atividades estão presentes em diferentes níveis. Neste estudo foram investigadas as concentrações de arsênio, cádmio, chumbo, cobre, cromo, níquel, selênio, zinco e mercúrio, além de isótopos estáveis de carbono e nitrogênio, em sedimentos, fragmentos vegetais e organismos marinhos, como invertebrados bentônicos, peixes bentívoros e mamíferos marinhos, coletados nos três estuários. As amostragens foram realizadas em 2015, sendo as análises de isótopos realizadas por EA-IRMS e as análises de metais pesados realizadas por ICP OES-VGA e ICP-MS. As razões isotópicas permitiram a distinção entre fontes de matéria orgânica e nível trófico. Exemplares da ictiofauna e de cetáceos analisados não apresentaram distinção entre os níveis tróficos 3 e 4, indicando uma dieta generalista para estes animais e potencial compartilhamento de nicho trófico. Os metais apresentaram maiores concentrações nos sedimentos do estuário de Santos, coincidindo com o local com maior intensidade de atividades antrópicas. Comparando os estuários há maior acumulação de: Cr, Cu, Zn e Hg em Paranaguá, As e Pb em Cananéia, e Cd, Ni e Se em Santos, resultados justificados por atividades antrópicas, fontes naturais e características geoquímicas de cada região. A tendência de biomagnificação de Se foi observada nas teias tróficas de todos os estuários, e de Zn e Hg nas teias de Paranaguá e Cananéia. Entretanto, As, Cr, Cu, Ni e Pb demostraram tendência a biodiluição nas teias tróficas estudadas, com maior bioacumulação em invertebrados bentônicos. Portanto, este estudo traz um panorama atual da distribuição espacial e trófica de metais pesados nos estuários, colaborando com o monitoramento e ações de gestão costeira. / The coastal region of Brazil is historically impacted by anthropic activities, which release contaminants such as heavy metals. In the estuaries of Paranaguá (PR), Cananéia and Santos (SP), these activities are present in different levels. In the present study, concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper, chromium, nickel, selenium, zinc and mercury were investigated, as well as stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in sediments, plant fragments and marine organisms such as benthic invertebrates, benthivorous fish and marine mammals, collected in the three estuaries. Samples were collected in 2015, with isotope analysis performed by EA-IRMS and heavy metal analysis performed by ICP OES-VGA and ICP-MS. Isotopic ratios allowed the distinction between organic matter sources and trophic level. The specimens of the ichthyofauna and cetaceans analyzed did not present distinction between trophic levels 3 and 4, indicating a generalist diet for these animals and a potential sharing of trophic niche. The metals have presented higher concentrations in the sediments from Santos estuary, what coincides with the place with greater intensity of anthropic activities. Comparing the estuaries, there is more bioaccumulation of Cr, Cu, Zn and Hg in Paranaguá, As and Pb in Cananéia, and Cd, Ni and Se in Santos; results which are justified by anthropic activities, natural sources and geochemical characteristics of each region. A biomagnification tendency of Se was observed in the trophic webs of all estuaries, and Zn and Hg in the Paranaguá\'s and Cananéia\'s webs. However, As, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb displayed a tendency to biodilution in the studied trophic webs; with a higher bioaccumulation in benthic invertebrates. Therefore this study provides a current overview of the spatial and trophic distribution of heavy metals in the estuaries. Thus, it is collaborating with the monitoring and actions of coastal management.

A região costeira do Brasil é historicamente impactada por atividades antrópicas, que liberam contaminantes, como os metais pesados. Nos estuários de Paranaguá (PR), Cananéia e Santos (SP), tais atividades estão presentes em diferentes níveis. Neste estudo foram investigadas as concentrações de arsênio, cádmio, chumbo, cobre, cromo, níquel, selênio, zinco e mercúrio, além de isótopos estáveis de carbono e nitrogênio, em sedimentos, fragmentos vegetais e organismos marinhos, como invertebrados bentônicos, peixes bentívoros e mamíferos marinhos, coletados nos três estuários. As amostragens foram realizadas em 2015, sendo as análises de isótopos realizadas por EA-IRMS e as análises de metais pesados realizadas por ICP OES-VGA e ICP-MS. As razões isotópicas permitiram a distinção entre fontes de matéria orgânica e nível trófico. Exemplares da ictiofauna e de cetáceos analisados não apresentaram distinção entre os níveis tróficos 3 e 4, indicando uma dieta generalista para estes animais e potencial compartilhamento de nicho trófico. Os metais apresentaram maiores concentrações nos sedimentos do estuário de Santos, coincidindo com o local com maior intensidade de atividades antrópicas. Comparando os estuários há maior acumulação de: Cr, Cu, Zn e Hg em Paranaguá, As e Pb em Cananéia, e Cd, Ni e Se em Santos, resultados justificados por atividades antrópicas, fontes naturais e características geoquímicas de cada região. A tendência de biomagnificação de Se foi observada nas teias tróficas de todos os estuários, e de Zn e Hg nas teias de Paranaguá e Cananéia. Entretanto, As, Cr, Cu, Ni e Pb demostraram tendência a biodiluição nas teias tróficas estudadas, com maior bioacumulação em invertebrados bentônicos. Portanto, este estudo traz um panorama atual da distribuição espacial e trófica de metais pesados nos estuários, colaborando com o monitoramento e ações de gestão costeira. / The coastal region of Brazil is historically impacted by anthropic activities, which release contaminants such as heavy metals. In the estuaries of Paranaguá (PR), Cananéia and Santos (SP), these activities are present in different levels. In the present study, concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper, chromium, nickel, selenium, zinc and mercury were investigated, as well as stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in sediments, plant fragments and marine organisms such as benthic invertebrates, benthivorous fish and marine mammals, collected in the three estuaries. Samples were collected in 2015, with isotope analysis performed by EA-IRMS and heavy metal analysis performed by ICP OES-VGA and ICP-MS. Isotopic ratios allowed the distinction between organic matter sources and trophic level. The specimens of the ichthyofauna and cetaceans analyzed did not present distinction between trophic levels 3 and 4, indicating a generalist diet for these animals and a potential sharing of trophic niche. The metals have presented higher concentrations in the sediments from Santos estuary, what coincides with the place with greater intensity of anthropic activities. Comparing the estuaries, there is more bioaccumulation of Cr, Cu, Zn and Hg in Paranaguá, As and Pb in Cananéia, and Cd, Ni and Se in Santos; results which are justified by anthropic activities, natural sources and geochemical characteristics of each region. A biomagnification tendency of Se was observed in the trophic webs of all estuaries, and Zn and Hg in the Paranaguá\'s and Cananéia\'s webs. However, As, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb displayed a tendency to biodilution in the studied trophic webs; with a higher bioaccumulation in benthic invertebrates. Therefore this study provides a current overview of the spatial and trophic distribution of heavy metals in the estuaries. Thus, it is collaborating with the monitoring and actions of coastal management.

Three approaches were employed to examine the effects of elevated sediment trace metal concentrations on estuarine/marine macrobenthic invertebrate assemblages. The initial study examined macroinvertebrate communities along a known polymetallic gradient, Lake Macquarie, NSW (gradient study). The second study experimentally tested if sediments sourced from different locations within Lake Macquarie differentially influenced the recolonisation of benthic invertebrates. The third study investigated the different recolonisation patterns of benthic invertebrates into sediments spiked with increasing concentrations of sediment-bound cadmium. In the Lake Macquarie gradient study, four locations (Cockle Bay, Warner's Bay, Kooroora Bay and Nord's Wharf) were sampled in winter 2000 and summer 2003 using a hierarchical design (location > site > plot). On both sampling occasions, the sediments showed strong gradients in lead, cadmium and zinc concentrations emanating from the Cockle Bay industrialised region in the lake's north, with concentrations being significantly lower in the most southern and less urbanised location (Nord's Wharf). In general, concentrations of lead, cadmium and zinc in the sediments increased among locations in the following order: Nord's Wharf > Kooroora Bay > Warner's Bay > Cockle Bay. AVSJSEM analyses indicated that in some sites in Cockle Bay, and to a lesser extent Warner's Bay, SEM concentrations exceeded their molar equivalence of AVS, indicating the potential for trace metals to be labile within the porewaters. Granulometry also changed along the gradient, with a higher proportion of silt/clay occurring in the locations with high metal concentrations. Conversely, the percentage of total organic carbon was higher in the less contaminated locations. In winter 2000, changes in benthic communities along the gradient supported the a priori hypotheses, with diversity and richness being greater in locations with lower concentrations of metals. Polychaetes were most numerous in Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay, whilst bivalves and gastropods were more abundant in Nord's Wharf and Kooroora Bay. Crustaceans were more numerous in Nord's Wharf; with all other locations having similar, lower, abundances. Ordination maps of the assemblages provided relatively clear separation of the assemblages among locations, with nonparametric multivariate analysis of variance (NPMANOVA) and subsequent pair-wise comparisons finding significant differences among the assemblages from all locations. SIMPER analyses found the highest level of dissimilarity was between the Nord's Wharf and Cockle Bay assemblages - primarily attributable to differences in the relative contributions of isopods; tellenid bivalves; and the polychaete families Spionidae, Opheliidae and Nephytidae. Weighted Spearman rank correlations (BIOENV) identified cadmium (Pw =0.74) as the strongest environmental (single or combination) variable to correlate with biotic assemblages. Benthic patterns along the gradient were less defined in summer 2003 due to a dramatic reduction in the abundance and diversity of fauna in Nord's Wharf. This decline was possibly attributable to a sustained reduction in salinity caused by a prolonged rainfall event. With the exception of Nord's Wharf, trends in the community indices and abundances of key taxa among the other locations were similar to those reported in winter 2000. Multivariate analyses discriminated the benthic assemblages from the four locations, with the findings from the NPMANOVA pair-wise comparisons indicating that the assemblages from all four locations were significantly different. SIMPER analyses showed the highest level of dissimilarity was between Nord's Wharf and Warner's Bay, with these differences being primarily attributable to their relative abundances of amphipods and polychaetes from the families Spionidae, Cirratulidae, Opheliidae and Capitellidae. BIOENV found that the combination of the sedimentary concentrations of cadmium and iron provided the best correlation (Pw =0.73) with biotic patterns, with similar correlations occumng with the addition of lead and its covariate, zinc (Pw =0.72). The combined findings from the gradient study established a strong correlation between trace metal concentrations within the sediments and suite of univariate and multivariate measurements. The low abundance and diversity of fauna in Nord's Wharf in the summer of 2003 highlighted the dynamic changes which can occur in the distributions of macrobenthic invertebrates. Although the study indicated that there was a strong relationship between trace metal concentrations and benthic community structure, the study was correlative, and requires subsequent experimental testing to confirm the causality of the observed relationships. The second component of the research was a translocation experiment using benthic recolonisation as an end-point. The experiment was performed to identify if the sediments, and not location, were influencing the composition of benthic assemblages in Lake Macquarie. Sediments were collected from three locations (Cockle Bay, Warner's Bay and Nord's Wharf), defaunated, and transplanted in three new locations along the south-east edge of the lake. At each location, 10 containers of each treatment were randomly placed in the sediment and allowed to recolonise for 22 weeks. Upon retrieval, the benthic communities were sampled and enumerated in conjunction with a variety of chemical and sedimentary measurements. Ten replicate invertebrate samples were also collected in the sediments adjacent to the experiment (ambient samples) at the completion of the experiment. Due to human interference, the containers from only two locations were analysed. Upon retrieval, pH and redox profiles of the sediments were similar to those expected in natural sediments. In general, concentrations of metals were low in the porewaters; however, iron precipitation on the porewater collection devices may have artificially increased the diffusion of metals, increasing concentrations near the sediment-water interface. Concentrations of SEM exceeded their AVS equivalence in some samples taken from the Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay treatments. Two-way ANOVAs found significant interactions between location and sediment treatments in diversity, evenness and the number of polychaetes, as well as significant differences in the number of capitellids and crustaceans among locations. Post-hoc comparisons of means found the Nord's Wharf sediment contained a higher mean number of individuals than the other treatments, including the ambient samples. nMDS ordination plots for both locations provided poor graphical discrimination of the assemblages among treatments; however, NPMANOVA detected significant location and treatment interactions. In both locations, pair-wise comparisons indicated that the assemblages within the Nord's Wharf treatments were significantly different to the Cockle Bay, Warner's Bay and ambient assemblages. No significant differences were detected between the Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay assemblages at either location. SIMPER analyses found the highest level of dissimilarity occurred between the ambient assemblages in Location 2 and the Nord's Wharf treatment, primarily due to the relative difference in the abundances of Capitellidae, Spionidae, Oweniidae, Nereididae and isopods among the assemblages. The findings from the translocation experiment suggest that the sediments are influencing the recolonisation of benthos. However, because differences were not detected between the Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay treatments, the approach used in the study shows potential as an in situ technique which could be used to assess the potential ecological risks of sediments fiom specific locations. Excluding cost and time considerations, the technique's primary disadvantage is the lack of a true control. As a result, the technique can only identify if the sediments are modifying benthic recolonisation, and not causality. The final component of the research experimentally tested if elevated concentrations of sediment-bound cadmium affected benthic invertebrate recolonisation. Sediments from the south coast of New South Wales (Durras Lake) were defaunated, and spiked with cadmium under anaerobic conditions to obtain three targeted cadmium concentrations: control (<O.1 ug/g), Low-Cd (15 Cd ug/g) and High-Cd (150 Cd ug/g). The physio-chemical properties of the waters and porewater concentrations of cadmium were monitored over a 28-day equilibration period, with declines in pH mediated with the addition of NaOH(aq). At the end of the equilibration period, porewater concentrations of cadmium were low in the Low-Cd and High-Cd treatments (maximum <l.5 ug/L in High-Cd), and below the detection limit in the control. Cadmium was not detected in the control sediments, with concentrations in the Cd-Low and Cd-High sediments exceeding their targeted concentrations, with final mean concentrations of 17 ug/g and 183 ug/g, respectively. The experimental design was similar to that employed in the translocation experiment, with 10 containers from each treatment transplanted into the sediments at three locations within Lake Macquarie. After 20 weeks, the containers were collected, along with benthic invertebrate samples from the ambient sediments. Data was not used from Location C due to extensive sediment deposition on the transplanted treatments. Significant declines occurred in the concentrations of cadmium in both the Low-Cd and High-Cd sediments, with the greatest loss occumng in the surficial sediments. The loss of cadmium was probably due to the differential loss of the fine fraction through physical means (hydrodynamic) rather than fluxing, as it assumed that the cadmium was primarily sediment-bound and relatively insoluble under anoxic conditions. Mean porewater concentrations of cadmium were below the detection limit in the control treatments; < 1 ug/L in the Low-Cd treatment, and generally < 2ug/L in the High-Cd, with the exception of some samples in Location B (maximum 5.6 ug/L) Concentrations of ammonia were low in the porewaters from the surficial sediments, with concentrations being significantly higher, and potentially toxic, in the anoxic porewaters (7 cm depth). In comparison to the previous recolonisation experiment, the number of individuals which recolonised the cadmium-spiked treatments was low, and significantly lower than the mean number of individuals sampled in the ambient sediments. No significant differences were detected among the treatments or locations (and their interactions) in diversity (H'), richness (d) or evenness (J). The number of polychaetes and molluscs significantly differed among the treatments, with post-hoc analyses indicating these differences were not among the cadmium-spike treatments, but were due to a greater mean abundance of these taxa in the ambient sediments. A significant interaction between treatment and location was detected in the mean abundance of crustaceans, with the ambient sediments having significantly lower mean abundances in both Location A and B. Ordination plots of the experiments in Location A and B provided poor graphical discrimination among the spiked treatments, although the ambient assemblages appear to be separated from the cadmium-spiked assemblages. NPMANOVA detected a significant interaction between treatments and locations, as well as among treatments. In both Location A and B, pair-wise analyses found the assemblages in the ambient sediments to be significantly different to the assemblages in all three cadmium treatments, with no differences being detected among the latter. SIMPER analyses found the highest levels of dissimilarity occurred between the spike-treatments and the ambient sediments, with these differences being primarily due to the relatively higher abundance of decapods in the spiked treatments, and capitellids in the ambient sediments. The cadmium-spiking component of the experiment clearly illustrated that artificially increasing the trace metal concentrations of metals in estuarine sediments is a complex process which needs to be performed in a methodological manner in order to obtain homogenous treatments with low porewater concentrations, and minimal artefacts. Furthermore, the results confirmed that the equilibration time for sediments can be extensive (several weeks), even in the case of organically rich sediments. The timing of the experiment (commenced late summer, February, 2003) appears to the major factor for the relatively low recolonisation rates, with the experiment missing the main larval recolonisation period between spring and early summer. Even in the highest treatment, elevated concentrations of cadmium did not appear to affect benthic recolonisation. This finding is supported by other experimental studies which suggest that concentrations of a single isolated metal must considerably exceed current guideline values (or contain high porewater concentrations) in order to elicit a biological effect. Nevertheless, as trace metals generally co-occur with other contaminants - with the response of multiple contaminants being possibly additive or synergistic - a conservative guideline value may be suitable in the interim as a precautionary measure. The findings of this thesis suggest that elevated concentrations of trace metal mixtures in estuarine sediments can affect the structure and composition of benthic communities; however, identifying causality is difficult. Although there has been an increase in the use of manipulative field experiments as a means of reducing the confounding influence of covariables found in field studies, this approach also has limitations, e.g. spatial and temporal scale issues, container effects, cost and biogeochemical changes to the sediments. Measuring stress at a community level is a fundamental component of estuarine risk assessment programs; and in isolation this approach can produce subjective and confounded findings. In order to accurately assess the risks associated with trace metal contaminated sediments, an integrated approach (e.g. weight of evidence) is required, one which uses multiple lines of evidence sourced from various chemical, environmental biological measurements.