Intimacy is an important aspect of human life. Little is known, however, about cultural differences of concepts of intimacy from a developmental perspective. Individuals' capacities for concepts of intimacy are manifested by their Social Cognitive Development stages. The main purpose of this dissertation is to examine cultural differences of concepts of intimacy and Social Cognitive Developmental stages in American and Chinese young adults. The first chapter reviews relevant literature; cross-cultural methodological considerations and suggestions for future intimacy research are also addressed. The second chapter describes an empirical study to test the cultural differences of concepts of intimacy and perspective taking abilities in American and Chinese female university students; it also examines whether the results of the relationship between concepts of relationships and perspective taking abilities support Selman's (1980) assumptions. Twelve white Americans from the U.S. and twelve Taiwan Chinese participated. Based on the structure of Selman's (1980, p. 322-323) "friends dilemma" (adolescent and adult version), four dilemmas (same-sex, opposite-sex, boyfriend-girlfriend and mother-daughter) were developed in English and then translated into Chinese. Selman's (1980) model was applicable but not all data were described in his model; traditional concepts of relations stages and perspective taking levels were found. The quantitative results found significant differences in American and Chinese subjects' concepts of relations stages but not in perspective taking levels. Significant differences were found on the lowest CR scores on general questions and across domains and on the frequency distributions of concepts of relations stages. American subjects gave a higher percentage of CR 2 and CR 2/3 stages scores than their Chinese counterparts. The qualitative data analysis found similarities and differences in American and Chinese subjects' concepts of intimacy; some differences were related to cultural norms. The results of this study do not support Selman's assumption that perspective taking levels are a "necessary but not sufficient" condition for the same parallel concepts of relations stages. Perspective taking levels and concepts of relations stages could be two ways of measuring the same constructs. Implications, suggestions for future studies, limitations, and applications for interventions are also addressed.

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War is a one of the major causes of child mortality and morbidity worldwide. Research evidence suggests that exposure to war trauma increases a child's risk of developing psychological problems, both short and long term. However, studies of resilience have shown that some children have a remarkable ability to survive trauma with little or no damage to their psyche. This dissertation is a study of individuals who have survived childhood war trauma and managed to rise above the odds to function well in major areas of life. The study was designed to explore factors contributing to their ability to remain resilient in the face of adversity. Using in-depth phenomenological interviewing, ten Cambodian child survivors were interviewed. All of the participants were separated from their families in 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over and suffered extraordinarily difficult ordeals during their internment in the labor camps. Some managed to reunite with their families in 1979 after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia before fleeing to the refugee camps in Thailand. Others lost all of their family members and came to the US as accompanied minors. Findings emerging from this study reveal that family cohesion, positive childhood memories, supportive recovery environment, stubborn determination to overcome obstacles, and Buddhist values are important factors that work together to produce resiliency. All of the participants were raised by empathic parents and learned to become self-reliant at an early age. The affection and warmth which marked those early years were the most important in sustaining them during difficult times in their lives. The Buddhist values of accepting suffering as their fate allowed them to form greater tolerance of the hardships and enabled them to face adversity with optimism and confidence. As survivors, they are proud and determined to make the most of "the second chance" granted to them. In the resettlement phase, they were able to heal their wounds quickly by letting bygones be bygones and optimistically moving toward the future. The safe and supportive recovery environment combined with an easy access to different resources made it possible for them to quickly put their shattered lives back together.

This study assessed the degree to which ethnic identity, ethnic identity achievement, self perceived differences in skin color, self-esteem, gender and social class were associated with academic achievement (GPA) among Asian (105), Latino (40), Caucasian (204), Afro-American (40), and Native American (10) adolescents. The subjects, students from an independent residential high school in the Northeast, consisted of both genders, grades 9 through 13 from a range of socioeconomic statuses (N = 408). Each student was handed a packet to complete and signed the consent form. Each subject was then instructed to choose the closest skin color from a skin color chart specifically developed for this study. Interviews were completed after each student's skin color was also rated by three independent raters. Subjects completed the skin color chart developed by the examiner for this study, the Rosenberg (global) Self-esteem Scale, the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, and the Hollingshead Two Factor Index of Social Position. Academic performance measures (GPA) and academic aptitude scores (V & MSAT) were obtained from school files, reflecting the yearly average performance. Correlations between ethnic identity and ethnic identity achievement revealed a significant negative correlation with GPA, VSAT and MSAT for the entire group but dissimilar results for the specific ethnic groups. In addition, correlations between gender, skin color, grade level, SES and GPA by ethnic group revealed significant findings for some but not all ethnic groups. In addition, multiple regression analysis results revealed, when SES was controlled, that Skin Color, Gender and Ethnic Identity Achievement (EIA), in order of strength, had a positive correlation with GPA, explaining 12% of the variance for the African American, Latino and Native American subgroups (in order of degree). On the other hand, multiple regression results revealed no difference in GPA scores for the Asian subgroup, whereas a negative trend was revealed for the White subgroup.

This study examined the perceptions of White men on whether they should or should not be treated with total equality and be included in affirmative action (AA) planning in the workplace. Previous studies explored the topic of discrimination toward white males and AA. Using Festinger's cognitive-dissonance theory and Adams's theory of equity, this study focused on research questions addressing basic knowledge of AA planning, perceived discrimination, dissonance, and, the perceptions of White men about AA planning. Using phenomenological methodology, data were collected from personal interviews, and analyzed by obtaining a sense of the phenomenon, categorizing the interviews into meaningful and smaller units, transforming the language to emphasize the phenomenon, and synthesizing the meaning into a consistent statement of the phenomenon structure. Results of the study suggested that very few of the White men knew much, if anything, about AA planning in the workplace, and even fewer perceived any type of discrimination associated with it. An overarching theme is that most also believe that AA is still necessary, for protected groups, and sometimes lower income white males, as a check and balance against discrimination that they still see occurring today. The results should assist organizations in understanding the perceptions of why White men do or do not believe they should be accounted for in AA planning, Implications for positive social change include better understanding of the evolving needs as the workforce demographic characteristics undergo changes and this could also potentially help reduce the number of discrimination lawsuits where white males are suing for equal rights in the workplace.

abstract: This study sought to create a holistic picture of Ethnic Studies as it relates to education through the voices and experiences of scholars who bridge Ethnic Studies and education. It examines Ethnic Studies through the conceptual lens of Safety Zone Theory (Lomawaima & McCarty, 2006). At the heart of Safety Zone Theory (SZT) is the concept that historically the U.S. federal government (and to an extent society as a result of this governmental framing) has designated certain elements of minority cultures as “safe” and other elements as “divisive.” SZT was originally applied to examine federal Indian education policy in the U.S. In this study, I expand that application to other minority and immigrant cultures within the United States. This research is significant because despite the minority population growth in the United States public school curricula typically only make reference to such groups and their histories a minimal side note (Loewen, 2007; U.S. Census, 2013; Zinn, 2003). For example, in 2010 the Arizona state legislature declared Ethnic Studies illegal on the grounds that it allegedly promotes “anti-American sentiments" (A.R.S. §15–112). Using Seidman’s (2013) three-part interview protocol, leading figures in the field of Ethnic Studies as it relates to education were interviewed to gain their perspectives on the “life story” of this field. Again following Seidman’s (2013) protocol, narrative profiles were crafted for each participant. The profiles were analyzed individually for emerging themes; this was followed by a cross-case analysis. This multilevel qualitative analysis yielded a larger narrative of Ethnic Studies that helps us to understand its past and envision its future. My hope is that this research impacts future policy on Ethnic Studies and current curricula, particularly in states and school districts making decisions on the importance and need of Ethnic Studies as a part of the curriculum. Also, the research can aid preservice teachers and principals in learning to see the fullness of their students, the places they come from, and the value and funds of knowledge that they bring to the classroom. I also hope that this is the beginning of more studies on the impact of individual stories and the stories as a collective in regards to race and ethnicity. Demographics within the United States are changing at a rapid pace, and school is children’s introduction to society. As a mini-society/community, there is a responsibility to model what they are going step into in real life. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Educational Leadership and Policy Studies 2016

The proposed studies will examine how higher education courses that include components from the discipline of ethnic studies may modify implicit stereotypic associations associated with race. In two studies, participants will complete a Race Implicit Association Test at different time points to measure how they associate Black and White people with either positive or negative qualities. The first study will focus on two methods of presenting information to participants. Participants will learn about a moment in American history either in factual or personal narrative form. The second study will examine if what participants learn from ethnic studies courses from different departments such as Africana, Chicanx/Latinx, and Asian American Studies can be generalized to stereotyping of Black and White people. Both studies will confirm that participants will start at the same level of stereotypic associations. However, the motivations behind the studies predict that implicit stereotyping will change after participants engage narrative, first person portrayals about a moment in history involving people of African descent. In addition, while some level of generalization is expected, participants in Africana studies course will show the greatest change. Keywords: Stereotype, Conceptual Associations, Education, Ethnic Studies

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