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Tensile static and tension-tension fatigue behaviour has been studied in coupon specimens made from continuous fibre reinforced glass/epoxy and carbon/epoxy laminates of various lay-ups, including a series of GFRP and CFRP 0,90,0 cross-ply laminates with different 90° ply thicknesses and CFRP 0, 90, +/-45 laminates with different ply stacking sequences. A variety of techniques has been used to monitor the accumulation of damage; microscopy on the polished edge of coupons, penetrant-enhanced X-radiography for CFRP laminates and visual observations for the transparent GFRP laminates. Under static loading, mechanical properties and damage thresholds are established for the onset of events such as cracking in the 90' and 45° plies and delamination. The experimentally determined 90° ply cracking threshold strains agree with predictions based on fracture mechanics, provided residual thermal strains are taken into account. Fatigue failure data are obtained for the CFRP laminates and plotted as conventional S-logN curves. The fatigue behaviour of the CFRP laminates has also been described qualitatively using a form of fatigue life representation in terms of the predominant damage mechanisms observed during cyclic loading. A detailed study of transverse ply matrix cracking showed that the mode of crack propagation depended on the type of loading. Crack growth across the width of the ply was instantaneous under static loading and at high cyclic stresses. At low cyclic stresses, i.e. below the static cracking threshold, cracks initiated only after a number of cycles (dependent on the stress level) and then grew slowly across the width of the ply throughout the course of loading. Slow crack growth was also observed at high cyclic stresses when the density of full width cracks was high and the crack spacing was small. The crack growth rate was found to be independent of crack length and to depend on crack spacing and hence was strongly influenced by interactions between neighbouring cracks. Fatigue growth of individual cracks was modelled using an approach based on an expression for the stress intensity factor at the tip of a transverse ply crack and a Paris fatigue crack growth relationship.

In addition to being one of the highest strength non-heat treatable aluminium alloys, magnesium-alloyed wrought aluminium 5083 displays excellent corrosion resistance and good weldability. Aluminium alloy 6061, alloyed with magnesium and silicon, displays high strength, excellent formability, adequate weldability and good corrosion resistance. These aluminium alloys find application in the ship building and transport industries where 5083 is often joined to 6061 to produce welded structures such as complex I-beams and semi-hollow or hollow channels. This project aimed at characterizing the hardness, tensile properties, corrosion behaviour and fatigue properties (in air and in a 3.5% NaCl solution) of aluminium 5083 and 6061 in the as-received and welded conditions. Plates of 5083-H111 and 6061-T651 aluminium, prepared with double-V or square butt joint preparations, were joined using semi-automatic or fully automatic pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAW). The pulsed GMAW process allows close control over the welding arc and facilitates the use of lower average heat inputs, thereby improving the bead appearance and mechanical properties. During this investigation, three filler wires were evaluated, namely magnesium-alloyed ER5183 and ER5356 aluminium, and silicon-alloyed ER4043. Hardness measurements revealed a decrease in hardness in the weld metal of the 5083-H111 welds. Dressed welds failed in the weld metal during transverse tensile testing, whereas undressed (as-welded) specimens failed at the weld toe or weld root due to the stress concentration introduced by the weld geometry. Significant softening, attributed to the partial dissolution and coarsening of strengthening precipitates and recrystallization during welding, was observed in the heat-affected zones of the 6061-T651 welds. During tensile testing, failure occurred in the heat-affected zone of all 6061 welds. Welding reduced the room temperature fatigue life of all specimens tested. In the 5083 welds, fatigue cracks initiated preferentially at gas pores, lack-of-fusion type defects and second phase particles in dressed welds, and at the stress concentration presented by the weld toes or the weld root in undressed welds. In 6061 welds, failure occurred preferentially in the softened heat-affected zone of the welds. As a result of improved control over the weld profile and a lower incidence of weld defects, fully automatic welds consistently outperformed semi-automatic welds during fatigue testing. The presence of a corrosive environment (a 3.5% NaCl solution in this investigation) during fatigue testing reduced the fatigue properties of all the samples tested. Corrosion pits formed preferentially at second phase particles or weld defects, and reduced the overall fatigue life by accelerating fatigue crack initiation. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / unrestricted

Tyres are highly engineered complex rubber composite products. They are constructed from a wide range of different materials in addition to the rubber. In different parts of the tyre's construction, the rubber elements are expected to perform different functions and as a consequence many different types of rubber are used, each of which will have its own specific detailed compound formulation. These different regions of a tyre's construction are joined together by different types of molecular bonding. This variety of materials introduces potential sources of failure both in the homogenous regions within the tyre's construction but also at the interfaces between them. This thesis investigates the crack growth resistance of the rubber materials used in different regions of a tyre's construction as well as the interfaces that are found between the different parts of the tyre. A fracture mechanics framework was used to investigate the fatigue behaviour of bulk rubber and some of the interfaces. The loading of a tyre is periodic in nature as a consequence of the wheel's rotation therefore the materials were characterised over a range of loading conditions. The effect of cyclical loading frequency on the fatigue behavior of the bulk rubber was also investigated. This work discovered that the amount of crack growth per cycle was comprised from two different crack growth contributions. The first is related to the steady tear which is related to the length of time the load is applied. The second resulted from additional damage caused by the repeated loading and unloading of the material. Potential reasons for this additional crack growth contribution are discussed. The interfacial fatigue properties between adjoining and potentially dissimilar rubber compounds were examined using a fatigue peeling experiment. A novel test piece geometry was developed to evaluate the fatigue properties of interfaces in tyres and it was also used to investigate how different processing parameters such as the pressure at the interface during vulcanisation alter the interfacial strength. A significant effect was observed and this was related to the different phenomena occurring when two rubbery polymers are brought into contact. Finally, a fracture mechanics approach was also used to derive the value of the tearing energy, the variable governing crack growth propagation in the rubber materials found in tyres, using submodelling technique in finite element analysis. The tearing energy values at different locations within a tyre were calculated and are shown not to exceed the minimum energy criteria for crack propagation under normal service conditions.

Ce travail a porté sur l’influence d’entailles micrométriques sur la tenue en fatigue à grand nombre de cycles d’un alliage de titane et la comparaison avec un cas de fretting-fatigue. Des études préliminaire sont montré que des entailles micrométriques pouvaient reproduire les champs de contraintes d’essais de fretting-fatigue. Le projet COGNAC dirigé par Safran Aircraft Engines a été créé dans l’objectif d’évaluer la faisabilité d’un modèle unique capable de simuler la tenue en fatigue de pièces subissant des sollicitations de fretting ou de fatigue en présence d’entailles. Le cadre expérimental de cette thèse est limité à la partie du projet traitant des entailles. Afin d’avoir le même état de préparation de surface, les micro-entailles et les surfaces des éprouvettes de fretting fatigue sont usinées par meulage. Afin de reproduire les gradients de contraintes observés localement pour des chargements de fretting-fatigue, des entailles en V avec des rayons compris entre 50 μm à 500 μm ont été choisies.L’étude du taux de triaxialité et du cisaillement a permis de définir une géométrie d’éprouvette de comparaison avec le fretting fatigue qui comporte 2 entailles en V inclinées en face à face. Trois campagnes expérimentales de fatigue à grand nombre de cycles ont été menées. La première sur des éprouvettes lisses meulées afin d’obtenir une limite de fatigue de référence sans concentration de contraintes. La seconde sur des éprouvettes avec une entaille non inclinée ayant une profondeur de500 μm afin d’étudier les effets du rayon de fond d’entaille sur la limite de fatigue. La dernière est une campagne sur les éprouvettes avec 2 entailles inclinées qui permettent de reproduire les champs de contrainte des essais de fretting. Les premiers stades de fissuration ont été étudiés. Les facettes de pseudo clivage, la présence d’un premier stade de fissuration et les amorçages multiples en fond d’entaille ressemblent à ce qui peut être vu sur des essais de fretting. Par contre la présence de fissures non propageantes en fond d’entaille sous la limite de fatigue n’a pas pu être démontrée, alors que ces fissures non propageantes sont observables sur les essais de fretting-fatigue. Les sites d’amorçages et les mécanismes des premiers endommagements semblent être pilotés par les zones affectées par le meulage. Enfin trois critères de fatigue ont été utilisés afin de tenter de reproduire nos résultats expérimentaux. L’approche basée sur la théorie du gradient –avec un gradient local et un impact affine du gradient- et celle basée sur la théorie de la distance critique ont fourni des résultats corrects sur les éprouvettes entaillées mais ne peuvent faire le lien avec les éprouvettes sans concentrations de contraintes. Enfin, l’approche probabiliste utilisée a produit des résultats très proches des résultats expérimentaux à la fois sur des éprouvettes lisses et des micro-entailles. La comparaison des résultats expérimentaux montrent que le champ de contrainte de Crossland proche de la surface d’amorçage du fretting-fatigue est proportionnel à celui proche d’un fond d’entaille dans le cas d’une éprouvette avec 2 entailles en face à face. Le niveau de la sollicitation des 2 essais diffère localement d’environ20%. Dans la suite des travaux, il serait particulièrement intéressant de relancer une campagne de comparaison entre fretting et entailles en utilisant un critère probabiliste pour dimensionner les essais afin de proposer une méthodologie commune de prise en compte des concentrations de contraintes dans les cas de fretting-fatigue et de concentrateurs géométriques sollicités en fatigue. / This study is about the influence of micro-notches on the high cycle fatigue behavior of a Ti64 alloy and the comparison with similar fretting fatigue tests. Preliminary studies showed that fretting-fatigue stress fields can be reproduced by micro-notched. The COGNAC project leaded by Safran Aircraft Engines was built to verify if a unique model can reproduce both fretting-fatigue and notched samples fatigue tests. The scope of this experimental study is limited to the notched samples. In this PHD thesis, the notches are grinded and the results are compared with fretting-fatigue tests on grinded surfaces. V-notched with notch root radius from 50 to 500 μm were chosen to reproduce the stress gradient of fretting-fatigue tests. A geometry with two inclined notches facing each other allows to reproduce shear stress and stress triaxiality from fretting-fatigue tests. Three different experimental studies were performed. First on un-notched specimens with a grinded surface state to produce a reference fatigue limit for grinded surface state without stress concentration. The second study the notch root radius effect on the fatigue limit with samples with one non-inclined notch of 500 μm of depth. The last one is a series of fatigue tests on samples with two inclined notches that reproduce the stress distribution of fretting-fatigue tests. Pseudo-cleavage facets, multi cracks initiations in the notch root and the presence of two propagation stages is similar to the fretting-fatigue tests mechanisms. However, non propagating cracks were not observe at the notch root while many of them were present during the fretting-fatigue test. The initiation sites and the early stages of propagation seem to be controlled by grinded affected areas. Finally, three fatigue criteria were used to try to reproduce the experimental results. The criteria based on the critical distance theory and gradient theory –with a local gradient and an affine effect of the gradient term- can reproduce the fatigue limits of notched samples but fail to predict both notched and un-notched specimen fatigue limits with a unique data set. The third one is a probabilistic criterion which success to predict the experimental fatigue limits not only of notched samples but also smooth ones. The comparisons between the experimental results of the fatigue on the specimens with two inclined notches and the fretting-fatigue shows a difference of 20%. The distribution of the Crossland stress is quite similar. In the future, it would be useful to make a new comparison between fretting-fatigue and fatigue on notches using the probabilistic criterion to design the tests. This new comparison could lead to the proposal of a unique methodology to take into account the fretting-fatigue and the fatigue on stress concentrators.

Magister Scientiae Dentium - MSc(Dent) / Statement of the problem: Fibre reinforcement of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) denture base material is known to improve the strength, as well as the fatigue behavior, of the material. The powder liquid (P/L) ratio of PMMA is often changed to modify the handling properties of the material. Little is known about the effect of this deviation from manufacturer’s guidelines on the fatigue behaviour of the fibre reinforced product. Purpose: This study compared the flexural strength (FS) of PMMA reinforced with glass fibre using different P/L ratios, before and after cyclic loading. Methods and materials: Three groups, with 50 glass fibre reinforced (everStick nonimpregnated fibers) heat-cured PMMA resin (Vertex Rapid Simplified) specimens each, were prepared using a custom-made template (dimensions 10x9x50mm). Each group had a different P/L ratio: the control group (100%) had the manufacturer’s recommended ratio; the 90% and 80% groups had reduced P/L ratios (by weight).Twenty five specimens from each group were subjected to a 3-point bending compression test using a universal testing machine. The remaining 25 specimens from each group were subjected to cyclic loading (104 cycles) before compression testing. The (FS) was calculated using the highest force (Fmax) before specimen failure. Flexural strength was calculated using the equation: FS=3WL/2bd2. Within each group, median FS values before and after cyclic loading were compared by means of a non-parametric analysis of variance. The Aligned Ranks Transform method was used for the analysis. Statistical significance was set at p=0.05. Results: The Fmax (N) of the control (100%), 90% and 80% groups fatigued and unfatigued were 100%: 1665 (fat), 1465 (unfat); 90%: 1679 (fat), 1548 (unfat) and 80%: 1585 (fat), 1467 (unfit) respectively. There was no significant interaction between Mix ratio and Fatigue state, and the 80% mix had a significantly higher mean than either the 90% or 100% mix (with differences of about 0.3 units for both). The Fatigued state had a higher mean than the Un- fatigued state by about 6.0 units. Using FS (MPa) it was found that the fatigued 80% mix specimens had the highest value. The FS MPa of the control (100%), 90% and 80% groups fatigued and un-fatigued were 64.3, 60.6; 66.9, 65.6 and 70.2, 69.3 respectively. The fact that fatiguing strengthened the specimens merits further research. When observing the broken specimens it was found that there was a complete debonding of the fibres and the PMMA. Conclusion and clinical relevance: a) Fibre: The benefit of using glass fibre bundles to reinforce prostheses fabricated using heat cured PMMA is questionable due to problems with bonding between the fibre bundles and the heat cured PMMA resin. b) Fatiguing: An average person chews 107 times during a 3 year period. A limited period of average masticatory forces should not have a detrimental effect on prostheses made from heat cured PMMA resin. c) Mix ratio: Within the normal parameters of laboratory techniques the mix ratio of PMMA resin had no significance on the fracture resistance of the prostheses. Due to the high cost of the fibres used for the reinforcement and the limited success and insignificant results achieved in this study, this researcher cannot recommend using Stickbond or Stick fibers for the reinforcement of dentures made with heat cured PMMA resin.

Für die Ermittlung der Ermüdungsfunktion sowie der E-Modul-Funktion sind in den europäischen Normen verschiedene Versuchsarten vorgesehen. In Deutschland werden bisher der Einaxiale Zugschwellversuch und der Spaltzugschwellversuch angewandt. Diese vergleichsweise einfachen Versuche können das Ermüdungsverhalten eines Asphaltgemisches in situ nur mit Einschränkungen (z.B. hinsichtlich des vorherrschenden Spannungszustandes) wiedergeben. Der Triaxialversuch mit Zug-/Druckschwellbelastung kann zur realitätsnahen Untersuchung des Ermüdungsverhaltens (Ermüdungsfunktion in Verbindung mit der E-Modul-Funktion) angewandt werden, da neben der frei wählbaren Zugbeanspruchung zusätzlich beliebige Druckbeanspruchungen normal zur Zugspannung auf den Probekörper aufgegeben werden können. Aufgrund der aufwändigen Versuchsdurchführung findet der Versuch bisher nur in der Forschung Anwendung. Die für die Dissertation ausgewerteten Daten umfassen die Ergebnisse von Einaxialen Zugschwellversuchen, Spaltzugschwellversuchen und Triaxialversuchen mit Zug-/Druckschwellbelastung an insgesamt sechs verschiedenen Asphaltgemischen. Die Einflüsse aus dem Hohlraumgehalt, der Belastungsfrequenz sowie der Mischgutart und -sorte auf das Ermüdungsverhalten konnten herausgearbeitet werden. Weiterhin gelang aus den Ergebnissen aller Versuchsarten die Aufstellung von Ermüdungsflächenfunktionen in Abhängigkeit von Dehnungsanteilen infolge verschiedener Spannungskomponenten (mehraxialer Spannungszustand) unter Berücksichtigung der in den Probekörpern der verschiedenen Ermüdungsversuche auftretenden Spannungskombinationen Zug- zu Druckspannung. Die Gültigkeit der ermittelten Ermüdungsflächenfunktion für andere, über die in den angewendeten Versuchsarten hinausgehende Spannungskombinationen muss mit Hilfe geeigneter (noch zu entwickelnder) Versuche überprüft werden.

Für die Ermittlung der Ermüdungsfunktion sowie der E-Modul-Funktion sind in den europäischen Normen verschiedene Versuchsarten vorgesehen. In Deutschland werden bisher der Einaxiale Zugschwellversuch und der Spaltzugschwellversuch angewandt. Diese vergleichsweise einfachen Versuche können das Ermüdungsverhalten eines Asphaltgemisches in situ nur mit Einschränkungen (z.B. hinsichtlich des vorherrschenden Spannungszustandes) wiedergeben. Der Triaxialversuch mit Zug-/Druckschwellbelastung kann zur realitätsnahen Untersuchung des Ermüdungsverhaltens (Ermüdungsfunktion in Verbindung mit der E-Modul-Funktion) angewandt werden, da neben der frei wählbaren Zugbeanspruchung zusätzlich beliebige Druckbeanspruchungen normal zur Zugspannung auf den Probekörper aufgegeben werden können. Aufgrund der aufwändigen Versuchsdurchführung findet der Versuch bisher nur in der Forschung Anwendung. Die für die Dissertation ausgewerteten Daten umfassen die Ergebnisse von Einaxialen Zugschwellversuchen, Spaltzugschwellversuchen und Triaxialversuchen mit Zug-/Druckschwellbelastung an insgesamt sechs verschiedenen Asphaltgemischen. Die Einflüsse aus dem Hohlraumgehalt, der Belastungsfrequenz sowie der Mischgutart und -sorte auf das Ermüdungsverhalten konnten herausgearbeitet werden. Weiterhin gelang aus den Ergebnissen aller Versuchsarten die Aufstellung von Ermüdungsflächenfunktionen in Abhängigkeit von Dehnungsanteilen infolge verschiedener Spannungskomponenten (mehraxialer Spannungszustand) unter Berücksichtigung der in den Probekörpern der verschiedenen Ermüdungsversuche auftretenden Spannungskombinationen Zug- zu Druckspannung. Die Gültigkeit der ermittelten Ermüdungsflächenfunktion für andere, über die in den angewendeten Versuchsarten hinausgehende Spannungskombinationen muss mit Hilfe geeigneter (noch zu entwickelnder) Versuche überprüft werden.

Das Örtliche Konzept dient der Berechnung von Lebensdauern zyklisch belasteter Konstruktionen. Dabei wird die Ermüdungsfestigkeit des ungekerbten Werkstoffes zugrundegelegt, um die Bauteillebensdauer abzuschätzen. Mit dieser Annahme verbunden ist ein starke Vereinfachung des Ermüdungsvorganges. Die Ursache ist die unzureichende Berücksichtigung wesentlicher Einflußgrößen, die die Festigkeit des interessierenden Bauteiles bestimmen und die andere Ausprägung als an der Werkstoffprobe erfahren. Dadurch ist die Zuverlässigkeit der Rechnung reduziert. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht und klassifiziert die Ursachen für dieses Übertragbarkeitsproblem. Mit einem sehr flexiblen multiplikativen Ansatz, der technologischen, statistischen und spannungsemchanischen Effekt berücksichtigt, läßt sich der Unterschied zwischen Festigkeit des Bauteils und der Werkstoffprobe rechnerisch erfassen. Zur numerischen Betrachtung technologischer und statistischer Einflüsse kann auf bereits bestehendes Wissen zurückgegriffen werden. Dies wird konzeptbezogen und mit Rücksicht auf die Anwendung angepaßt. Die Berücksichtigung des spannungsmechanischen Einflusses hingegen kann nicht von Bestehendem abgeleitet werden. Dazu wird aus einer umfangreichen Sammlung experimenteller Ergebnisse dieser Einflufaktor abgeleitet. Aus der so gegebenen Stichprobe lassen sich durch eine statistische Auswertung eine Reihe von Kennwerten identifizieren, die die Stützwirkung maßgeblich beeinflussen. Darauf aufbauend wird eine Bestimmungsgleichung für den spannungsmechanischen Einflußfaktor abgeleitet. Somit ist ein Stützwirkungskonzept geschaffen, das es erlaubt, die drei wesentliche Aspekte technologischen, statistischen und spannungsmechanischen Einfluß qualitativ uind quantitativ ins Örtliche Konzept zu integrieren. Mit dieser Vorgehsweise und einer vorliegenden Werkstoffwöhlerlinie läßt sich die bauteilspezifische Festigkeit abschätzen. Die so abgeleitete Wöhlerlinie erlaubt eine wesentlich genauere Lebensdauerberechnung, wie die Kotrolle an umfangreichen, unabhängigen Daten beweist. / The local strain concept serves to estimate the service life of cyclically loaded structures. Here the fatigue strength of the mere material coupon is taken as the basis in the calculation for notched components. This represents a distinct simplification of the complex fatigue process because of disregarding the relevant influences that determine strength and durability. By that the reliability of the calculation is not yet satisfying. The present investigation first classifies the reasons for this problem of transferabillity between notched component and unnotched specimen. A simple but flexible approach is used to describe the technological, statistical and and gradient effect. To consider the technological influences and statistical size effect numerically, known relationships and procedures are taken and adapted to the methodology of the concept. To catch gradient effects a new stress-relief-concept was developed. From a comprehensive database of experimental results gradient effects were were separated. By a statistical analysis relevant variables that govern the stress-relief are identified. Using these, an equation gets derived which enables to compute the gradient effects on fatigue strength. The developed stress-relief-concept allows to estimate a component-related strain(parameter-)-life-curve. Lifetime predictioins based on this are by far more reliable than those based on materials data only. This is verified by a check on an extensive and independent database.