Fear memories are necessary to initiate anticipatory fear responses when we are confronted with cues that predict an impending threat. However, when a cue no longer predicts threat, an extinction memory is formed that actively inhibits the expression of the fear memory. Failure to acquire, consolidate, or recall extinction memories causes fear memory expression (i.e., fear responding) in the absence of threat, which is a hallmark characteristic of most anxiety-related disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Of further importance, these disorders occur approximately twice as often in women than men, which is thought to partially rely on sex hormone mediated differences in fear extinction. Moreover, deficits in extinction memory processing can also hinder the success of extinction-based exposure therapy, which is commonly used to treat these disorders. Thus, a better understanding of the factors determining the quality of extinction memories is of utmost importance. The present thesis focuses on three of these factors including the female sex hormone 17β-estradiol (E2), fear extinction timing, and the noradrenergic arousal system. To examine the role of E2 (Manuscript 1; low E2 levels or high E2 levels) and fear extinction timing (Manuscript 2; either immediately or delayed after the initial fear memory formation), we used a special differential fear conditioning procedure that allowed us to separately assess fear memories and extinction memories via peripheral arousal responses (measured via skin conductance responses [SCR]) and, most importantly, via central neurophysiological indicators (measured via electroencephalography [EEG]). Concerning EEG parameters, we were especially interested in neural oscillations (especially in the theta and gamma range). To further advance the understanding of the neurophysiological foundations of both memory systems, we also aimed at disentangling oscillatory and non-oscillatory brain activity (Manuscript 2). Moreover, the crucial role of the noradrenergic arousal system for the quality of extinction memories is highlighted in a review of relevant rodent and human studies (Manuscript 3). By using the described multi-methodological approach, we were able to demonstrate for the first time that peripheral arousal as well as fear-related theta oscillations are sensitive to E2. This was indicated by less fear responding (attenuated peripheral arousal and attenuated theta oscillations) during the recall of fear and extinction memories under high peripheral E2 levels (Manuscript 1). Concerning the role of fear extinction timing, we demonstrate that delayed extinction is advantageous over immediate extinction in reducing peripheral arousal during the recall of the extinction memory (Manuscript 2). Additionally, by disentangling oscillatory and non-oscillatory brain activity, we demonstrate for the first time that oscillatory and non-oscillatory brain activity is sensitive to fear expression. Moreover, by reviewing different rodent and human studies, we highlight the important role of noradrenergic arousal for the recall of extinction memories and, importantly, provide a detailed mechanistic framework of how extinction deficits might be caused after immediate extinction (Manuscript 3). In sum, the present thesis underscores the important role of E2, fear extinction timing, and the noradrenergic system for the recall quality of fear memories and extinction memories in humans.

Detta arbete utreder om rädsla kan vara orsak till att människor i sekulariserade områden söker sig till andlighet och/eller religion. Metoden hermeneutik användes i huvudsak för detta ändamål då den ger utrymme för att tolka och förstå mänskliga intentioner och idéer. Vidare vilade den teoretiska grunden på Carl G. Jungs och Bertrand Russells positiva respektive negativa religionsteorier som båda hävdade att rädsla har en direkt koppling till religion men på olika sätt. Även Olaf Hammers distinktion mellan begreppen religion och andlighet fungerade som grund. Matthias Bluemke (med flera) och René Hefti användes som tidigare forskning för att demonstrera hur rädsla och religion/andlighet kan ha kopplingar till varandra. Arbetets undersökning gick därefter ut på att studera i vilken grad människan påverkas av, och hanterar rädslor, men också vilken påverkan religion och andlighet har på sådana känslor. De böcker som analyserades utifrån detta var Tänka, snabbt och långsamt, av Daniel Kahneman, som behandlar hur människans hjärna fungerar; Flytande rädsla, av Zygmunt Bauman, som behandlar rädslor i modern tid; samt Skuggeffekten, av bland annat Deepak Chopra, som utifrån ett andligt perspektiv behandlar hur rädsla bemötts historiskt och hur den bör bemötas idag. I den avslutande diskussionen gjordes en komparation av resultatet från denna undersökning med tidigare forskning för att se vilka resultat som bör vara mest trovärdiga. Resultatet visade att rädsla och religion/andlighet i allra högsta grad har en koppling till varandra på fler än ett sätt och att rädsla kan leda till ett inre sökande efter balans vilket kan resultera i andliga upplevelser. Resultatet visade sig strida mot Russells forskning men överlag i linje med Jungs. / This essay investigates if the spiritual and/or religious search among people in secularized countries can be a result of fear. The method used for this purpose was hermeneutics, since it offers room for interpretation and an understanding of human intentions and ideas. Carl G. Jung's and Bertrand Russell's research on religion became the theoretical foundation since both scientists argue that fear and religion are connected, though in different ways, where Jung sees a positive connection while Russell sees a negative one. Futhermore, Olaf Hammer's distinction between the concepts religion and spirituality was also part of this foundation. For previous research Matthias Bluemke's (and others) and René Hefti's scientific reports were used to demonstrate how fear and religion/spirituality might be connected to one another. The following investigation revolved around the degree to which people are affected by fear, how fear is handled and what impact religion and spirituality might have on fear. The books that were analyzed were: Tänka, snabbt och långsamt, by Daniel Kahneman, which describes the function of the human brain; Flytande rädsla, by Zygmunt Bauman, which describes fear in modern time; and lastly Skuggeffekten, by Deepak Chopra and others, which uses a spiritual perspective to describe how fear has been handled historically and how it should be handled in modern day time. In the final discussion a comparison was made between the result of the investigation and previous research. The result showed that fear and religion/spirituality in multiple ways have a deep connection to each other, and that fear can result in an inner search for balance in which spiritual experiences can arise. The result was therefore contrary to Russell's theory but, for the most part, in line with Jung's.

Applied research project (D. Min.)--School of Theology and Missions, Oral Roberts University, 2003. / Includes abstract and vita. Translated from Korean. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 186-193).

Applied research project (D. Min.)--School of Theology and Missions, Oral Roberts University, 2003. / Includes abstract and vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 186-193).

Analysis of perception of women's fear of crime on the selected area of Malešice Abstract The objective of this thesis is to define all the physical and social fear factors of crime and its share on the subjective perception of women's fear of crime on the selected area of Malešice. As the main research methods the field research was used to identify the factors of fear in space, spatial analysis of the factors of fear and analysis of interviews with the research group of women, aimed to determine the structure of these factors of fear in the individual categories as well as in specific places, where women feel the fear of crime. The theoretical framework of this work is based on the formation and the classification characteristics of the significance of individual fear factors in relation to the perception of the fear of women. Keywords: The fear factor of crime, the perception of women's fear, the place of fear

Classical fear conditioning – including acquisition and extinction – is a model for fear learning and memory in health and disease. Moreover, trauma-related disorders can be viewed as comprising fear acquisition under severe stress. Yet, in humans, we know comparatively little about how acute stress affects fear conditioning. Therefore, the first aim of this thesis was to investigate the effect of stress on fear acquisition or extinction. Stress induces multiple hormonal and neurotransmitter changes dynamically developing over time, including a fast first-wave and a slower second-wave stress response. Models derived from avoidance learning and declarative memory studies suggest that stress effects on memory depend on the temporal proximity between learning and stressor: encoding close to the stressor will be enhanced, but encoding and recall later in time (during the second-wave) will be suppressed (e.g., Schwabe, Joëls, Roozendaal, Wolf, & Oitzl, 2012). So far, these predictions were not related to fear conditioning. Therefore, we investigated if the model-based predictions are also valid in human fear conditioning. We used two stressors to investigate first-wave and second-wave stress effects: the cold pressor test (CPT) inducing a strong first-wave but little second-wave activation and a psychosocial stressor, reliably inducing both, first- and second-wave stress responses. Conditioning was measured via skin conductance responses (SCRs). Investigating the first-wave (Experiment 2), we placed fear acquisition and immediate extinction directly after the CPT (n = 20) or after the control treatment (n = 20). We found no group difference in acquisition performance, but significantly increased extinction resistance in the stressed CPT group. In Experiment 3, CPT (n = 20) or control (n = 20) was placed after acquisition but directly prior to extinction training. Here, we found improved extinction and 24h-delayed extinction recall after CPT. Investigating the second-wave (Experiment 1), we placed fear acquisition and immediate extinction 45 min after the psychosocial stressor (i.e., at the peak of salivary cortisol, n = 12) or after control (n = 12). Here, we found no significant stress effects. Sex and female sex hormones also influence fear conditioning: Women are at a higher risk to develop anxiety and stressor-related disorders than men. Interestingly, patients with these disorders show impaired fear extinction and extinction recall, and low levels of the sex hormone 17β-estradiol (E2) are linked to impaired extinction in both, healthy and patient female samples. So far, there is little data on how acute stress and circulating E2-levels might interact in fear acquisition and especially in fear extinction. Therefore, the second aim of this thesis was to explore this possible interaction in healthy women in different cycle phases compared to men. Thus, in Experiment 4, we included hormone status as a quasi-experimental variable and compared free cycling women in the midcycle phase (high E2, low progesterone, n = 24), women in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (low E2, low progesterone, n = 24), and men (n = 24). We placed fear acquisition and extinction 45 min after the psychosocial stressor (n = 36) or control (n = 36), and tested extinction recall after 24 h. In line with Experiment 1, the second-wave stressor did not affect fear acquisition and immediate extinction. However, we found a stress by hormone status interaction within women at the 24h-delayed extinction recall test: in the stressed group, early follicular women showed impaired extinction recall and a higher return of fear compared to midcycle women, whereas there was no difference between early follicular and midcycle women after control treatment. Collectively our results support a different role for the first- and second-wave stress response in human fear conditioning. Fear acquisition near the first-wave stress response results in enhanced fear memory, which is resistant to extinction. Extinction training near the first-wave enhances extinction learning. In contrast, fear conditioning at the peak of the peripheral second-wave cortisol response had no effect on acquisition or extinction performance. However, second-wave stress interacted with the hormone status of women, where only women in a low E2 state were vulnerable to negative stress effects in extinction recall. The last result will encourage further investigation of the interplay between E2 and stress in fear extinction. Enhancement of extinction by the CPT could – if replicated – be translated into strategies for optimizing exposure therapy.

No description available.

No description available.

Depression is a complex psychiatric illness that affects a large proportion of the population. Many researchers make use of preclinical animal models to study the behavioural and neurobiological characteristics of this disease. However, although a bias towards maladaptive thinking patterns and emotional responses is a cardinal symptom of depression, these symptoms have been rarely considered in preclinical models. One way to investigate maladaptive thinking is through the use of fear conditioning paradigms. Fear conditioning evaluates emotional memory by assessing a rodent’s ability to associate neutral cues with an aversive experience. It requires the activation of brain structures critically involved in emotion-related learning and memory processes, most notably the hippocampus and amygdala, to successfully learn the task. The primary goal of this dissertation was to gain a better understanding of the consequences of repeated corticosterone injections—a validated preclinical model of depression-- on emotionally driven behaviour, the involvement of the hippocampus and amygdala in mediating these behaviours, and whether the antidepressant, fluoxetine, can prevent the effects of corticosterone on these behaviours. To begin, in Chapter 2 I confirmed that the depressogenic effects of corticosterone in the forced swim test, which is a traditional behavioural assay for depression in rodents, are not due to procedural differences or non-specific motor effects. I then investigated the impact of repeated corticosterone injections on the learning and memory of delay and contextual fear conditioning. I examined whether altering the order in which rats recall context versus tone cued fear associations determines the magnitude of corticosterone’s effect on conditioned fear. I found that corticosterone dose-dependently increased freezing to contextual cues whereas freezing to tone cues was increased regardless of dose. Furthermore, the order of the presentation of context versus tone cues during recall determined whether corticosterone produced significant enhancements in freezing. In Chapter 4, I investigated whether neuronal activity in the hippocampus and amygdala after recall of contextual or tone cued fear was associated with the effects of corticosterone found in Chapter 3. Recall of contextual cues was associated with neuronal activity in specific sub regions of the amygdala without any observed changes in the hippocampus. In Chapter 5, I investigated whether repeated corticosterone injections would also enhance the learning and memory of trace fear conditioning, a task that is heavily reliant on the hippocampus. I found that corticosterone increased freezing during recall of trace cues and enhanced the acquisition of trace cues. The results from this chapter, taken together with the results from chapters 3 and 4, suggest that repeated corticosterone exposure readily enhances learning and memory processes that evoke emotional arousal. In Chapter 6, I asked whether repeated treatment with the antidepressant, fluoxetine, could prevent increased fear learning produced by repeated corticosterone injections. I found that fluoxetine decreased freezing behaviour in corticosterone rats during recall of tone cues. Overall, the results of this dissertation further our understanding of the effects of corticosterone on learning and memory tasks that evoke emotional arousal, support the use of fear conditioning as a measure of depression-like behaviour, and demonstrate that repeated corticosterone injections reliably produce a depressive phenotype in rats.

The purpose of this study is to determine if research on the concept “the fear of the Lord” can lead to a better understanding of the message of the Pentateuch in different times and contexts. The study begins with a discussion regarding the shortcomings of studies done on “the fear of the Lord” in both Old Testament theology and the Pentateuch research. These studies are often dated or deal insufficiently with the problem. The place and function of the concept “the fear of the Lord” in the Pentateuch has not yet been determined. In chapter two a discussion follows on “the fear of the Lord” in relation to education and the retelling of “history”. The concept “the fear of the Lord” is compared with historical developments in biblical interpretation. This section of the study comes to the conclusion that “the fear of the Lord” emphasises the meaning the Scripture has for the reader and does not necessarily present an objective/rational reading thereof. Chapter three discusses the developments in semantics. The different words that can be translated with “fear” are discussed according to their semantic domains. This chapter also discusses the possible development of the concept “the fear of the Lord” within the Old Testament. The idea of the fear of the gods in Middle Eastern texts is also considered. Chapter four is a discussion of the composition of the Pentateuch. The history of its research is discussed and conclusions are drawn with regard to the different sources in the Pentateuch. This chapter comes to the conclusion that “ the fear of the Lord” is present in the Elohist, J material, Deuteronomist source as well as the Holiness code, but is absent from the Priestly material. Chapter five is an exegetical study of texts that contain references to fear directed towards God. Words translated with “fear” are discussed according to their semantic domains. The exegetical study also involves a study of other terms or subjects in the Pentateuch which are used in close relation to “the fear of the Lord”. The study concludes that research based on the concept “the fear of the Lord” and its function in the Pentateuch in its final form as well as its different sources, does indeed lead to a better understanding of the message of the Pentateuch in different times and contexts. / PhD (Biblical Studies/Theology), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014