In a post feminist era the dilemma facing sports managers today is how to promote their female athletes physical ability while at the same time presenting appropriate images of their feminity and sexuality. There is no easy answer to this problem. "Damned if they do, damned if they don't," describes the dilemma facing female elite athletes, and their sports manager in determining how best to present themselves publicly. Professional sport requires professional management. Sport managers work in a highly competitive industry and part of that involves winning sponsorship dollars from major corporations; an area closely related to the securing of media coverage. Sponsors are attracted to sports teams and athletes who command media interest. Therefore within the sports industry there is a need for sports managers with a comprehensive understanding of both the media and sponsorship. The representation of elite women athletes is a particular challenge because many want an image that promotes their athleticism while still maintaining their feminity. ALPHA is the first Greek letter of the alphabet and is often used to describe something new and original. This research centres on the development and trial of a new media evaluation tool. The ALPHA (analysis of text, location, photographs, headings of athletes) media analysis model provides sports managers and students with a comprehensive tool to analyse, evaluate and understand the current level of media coverage of their particular sport over a period of time. Application of the model was tested on newspaper coverage of elite female sports during the Olympics and a non-Olympic period. The research illuminated key issues relevant to the media coverage of elite female athletes. From the results teaching boxes have been developed in order to illustrate how use of this tool can enhance the education of sports managers. While this research showed that there had been some improvement in the amount of media coverage given to elite female athletes, there is still a need for sports managers to work towards improving the quality of that coverage. The ALPHA media analysis model provides sports managers and athletes with a means to make informed choices because they can effectively evaluate media coverage. As such this research adds to the overall development and professionalisation of the sports industry.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of five weeks of creatine monohydrate ingestion on body composition, blood metabolite, and muscular performance measures in 16 female NCAA Division1 lacrosse players. Subjects were randomly divided into placebo (P,n=9) and creatine supplement (C,n=7) groups. The supplement group was administered 20g/d of creatine monohydrate in capsule form for 7 d and 2g/d thereafter for five weeks during which time the subjects were engaged in a pre-season conditioning program. Pre-and post-testing consisted of a three-site skinfold analysis, bioelectric impedence (BIA) measurements, hydrostatic weighing, isokinetic knee extension muscle endurance test (5 sets of 30 repetitions at 180 degrees/sec.), blood lactate response to the performance test (pre-test and 3 minutes post-test), a 1RM bench press and 1RM leg extension test. Pre-,mid-, and post- values of blood parameters (BUN and GPT) were measured in order to ensure the safety of the subjects. Data was analyzed using two-way ANOVA with repeated measures, and values are presented as mean±SEM for C and P groups, respectively. Testing revealed that 1RM bench press significantly increased in both groups (mean increase both groups: 4.5kg), and the C group improved significantly more than the P group (6.17±1.96 and 2.84±1.84 kg ). Percent body fat by skinfold also decreased significantly in both groups over time (0.52%), and the C group decreased their body fat significantly more than the P group (1.2+0.92 and +0.29+0.81%). Percent body water by BIA also decreased significantly in both groups over time (2.0%), and the C group decreased their percent body water significantly more than the P group (3.0±1.06 and 1.0±0.92 %). There was a trend for body fat measured by hydrostatic weighing to decrease for for both groups over the 5 weeks. Although no significant differences between groups were found in all other measures, significant time effects across groups were noted (values are absolute mean increase for both groups) for body weight (0.49±3.2kg), 1RM leg extension (1.36±4.1kg), BUN (0.07±0.03mmol/L), total work across 5 bouts of isokinetic knee extension (283.5±387.3Watts), and fat-free mass by skinfold (0.70±1.18kg). These data indicate that a regimen of dietary creatine supplementation designed to increase total muscle Cr content significantly improved the 1RM bench press strength, and decreased the percent body fat as assessed by skinfold and the percent body water as assessed by BIA of a supplemented group more than a placebo group when all female subjects are engaged in a common resistance training program. Furthermore, chronic creatine supplementation appears to have no detrimental effect on blood metabolites which indicate kidney and liver function. / Master of Science

This study compared the prevalence of eating disorder behavior between collegiate athletes (n = 206) and college female nonathletes (n = 197). Numerous eating disorder studies conducted on the female college population have shown this population to be at greater risk of developing eating disorders than the general population. Furthermore, some studies have found that women athletes are even at higher risk of eating disorders, but the research has produced conflictual and inconclusive evidence. In this study, it was hypothesized that athletes would have higher rates of disordered eating. However, a reverse outcome occurred. The t-test conducted on the EAT-26 scores from the two groups showed that the nonathletes females displayed significantly higher eating disordered behavior than the female athletes. Additionally, relationships between sports advocating body leanness as possible risk factors of eating disorders were investigated and no significance was found. The study did find a link between age and eating disorder behavior among nonathletes. Traditionally, it has been assumed that collegiate female athletes are more likely to develop an eating disorder because of the intense training and performance demands that are added to the normal stressors of college life. This study challenges this assumption. The implications from the current study suggest additional research is needed to further investigate the specific environmental elements that may predispose subpopulations of college women to develop eating disorders. / Ph. D.

Through two phases we examined self-compassion as a way to promote healthy reactions, thoughts, and emotions in young women athletes when faced with emotionally difficult sport-specific scenarios. In Phase I, participants (N = 101; Mage = 20.0) completed measures of self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism, as well as reactions, thoughts, and emotions in response to hypothetical (i.e., responsible for a team loss) and recalled scenarios. After partialling out self-esteem and narcissism, self-compassion was related (p < .01) to negative affect (r =-.40), catastrophizing thoughts (r =-.30), personalizing thoughts (r =-.32), and behavioural equanimity (r =.28) for the hypothetical scenario. A similar pattern was found for the recalled scenario. Participants returning for Phase II were randomly assigned to a self-compassion induction (n = 21), self-esteem induction (n =20), or writing control (n =18) group. Following the induction, they responded to the same hypothetical scenario as in Phase I. A doubly multivariate analysis with self-esteem and narcissism as covariates showed a non-significant induction by time interaction, Wilks’ Lambda = .75, F (12, 96) = 1.27. However, hierarchical regression analysis similar to Leary et al. (2007) showed initial levels of self-compassion as the only significant predictor for negative affect, personalizing thoughts, and behavioural equanimity. Future research needs continued focus on how and when self-compassion is most useful to young women athletes.

Representations of black female sporting bodies, when taken as what Susan Bordo (1997) refers to as “texts of culture,” operate as sites for an interrogation of the production and maintenance of ideologies of race, gender, sexuality and deviance in the context of Western society. The purpose of this thesis was to interrogate these ideologies within the context of sport by focusing specifically on media representations of three black track and field athletes—Florence Griffith Joyner, Marion Jones, and Caster Semenya. Using an ethnographic approach to content analysis this thesis shows the ways in which the bodies of black female athletes function as commodities, as well as they ways in which they become representations of deviance in sport. / text

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Yes / Combining Mikhail Bakhtin's (1990) theoretical position on Architectonics and Erving Goffman's (1979) writings on visual content analysis, the aim of this paper is to explore how female athletes are caught in a complex matrix of power, post - feminist neoliberalism, and self - presentation. The visual images they choose to portray are, therefore, perfect for determining how this cohort of women negotiates social discourses around identity and femininity. Appropriating the Bakhtinian notion of architectonic unity, not only provides an alternative theoretical lens for enquiries concerning the body, identity, and selfhood, but also initiates some thought provoking questions around neoliberal feminism and 'new femininity.' This paper advances on previous research by exemplifying how Serena Williams (considered the greatest female tennis player of all time) combines both her femininity and strong physicality to self - shape a myth - like persona, setting her apart from traditional stereotypes of femininity and 'femaleness.'

The purpose of this study was to compare the relationship of body attitude to both dietary intake and selected personality characteristics. The study focused on the relationship between dietary intake and both body attitude and personality characteristics as well as differences in body attitude and personality characteristics between female college age lacrosse athletes, dance team members and controls. The subjects were 27 lacrosse players (mean age = 19.4 ± 1.1 y), 20 dance team members (mean age = 19.5 ± 1.4 y) and 64 non- athlete controls (mean age = 20.6 ± 1.5 y). Participants were administered the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitude Questionnaire, the Cognitive Behavioral Dieting Scale and a Silhouette Scale to assess body attitude and selected personality traits. Participants completed a 5-day diet record including 3 consecutive weekdays and 2 weekend days Group mean differences on body attitude and personality traits were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance. Post-hoc analyses were performed using the Tukey procedure and the Kruskal-Wallis Test. Relationships were determined between dietary intake, body attitude and personality traits utilizing the Pearson Product Moment Correlation procedures. Stepwise multiple regression techniques were utilized in the attempt to develop a valid and reliable prediction equation for dietary intake using body attitude and selected personality characteristics. Significant differences did exist between the athletic groups and the control group on interoceptive awareness, maturity fears, social insecurity, feelings of attractiveness, body dissatisfaction, perfectionism, bulimia, interpersonal distrust, dietary protein (g) intake, dietary fat (g) intake, dietary fiber (g) intake, and vitamin C (mg) intake. No significant differences were found between the lacrosse and dance team on dietary intake, body attitude or personality traits. Significant relationships did exist between dietary intake and body attitude measures in all three groups. In addition, significant relationships were also found to exist between body attitude measures and personality traits in all three groups. Five different prediction equations were generated using relationships from each individual group and then combined groups. The results of this study indicate that female athletes involved in both aesthetic and non-aesthetic sports, may be purposefully restricting total caloric intake as well as fat intake due to body image dissatisfaction during the competitive season. / Ph. D.

Magister Artium (Sport, Recreation and Exercise Science) - MA(SRES) / Coaches have been found to have a remarkable influence on the physical and psychological development on their athletes and that their main responsibility is to help their athletes perform at their maximum level and reach goals that they could not attain on their own. Coaches are responsible for developing athletes’ mental, physical, technical, and tactical abilities, and in addition to all of these responsibilities, they are also expected to win. The coach-athlete relationship can thus be regarded as the conveying of technical skills and mentoring from coach to athlete. Despite the responsibilities of a coach, the athlete-coach relationship is fundamental in the process of coaching because its nature is likely to determine the athlete’s satisfaction, self-esteem and performance accomplishments. The aim of this study was to investigate female university track and field athletes’ lived experiences within the athlete-coach relationship to gather psychological effects relating to performance. The objectives were to explore the lived experiences of female university athletes within the athlete-coach relationship, investigate the psychological effects, and explore the impact it has on performance within the athlete-coach relationship. The researcher adopted the qualitative research method approach using the phenomenology design to explore and obtain a better understanding into the psychological effects of the athlete-coach relationship on an athletes’ performance. Semi-structured interviews were used to gather data. Following the interviews, all data was analyzed using the 3+1C’s conceptualized model as the theoretical framework. This model was used as it defines the coach-athlete relationship as a situation in which coaches and athletes’ closeness, commitment, and complementarity are co-orientated. The 3+1C’s model explored the athlete-coach relationship from the athlete’s perspective which elicited positive and negative psychological and performance effects within the athlete-coach dyad. The research findings of this thesis it can be concluded that the behaviours of coaches have an influence on female athletes’ psychological state as well as performance; and found that when coaches and athletes work together to achieve goals the relationship is more likely to be successful and the athlete is more likely to achieve goals. Furthermore it was concluded that affective emotional feelings of female University athletes are important in developing an effective athlete-coach relationship and facilitating positive psychological effects.

Dr. Kelly Price analyzes key research confirming that elite female athletes including pro tour golfers are still judged on their physical attractiveness and social behaviors.