O fungo filamentoso Trichoderma reesei é caracteristicamente reconhecido pela produção de celulases e hemicelulases, que lhe permitem utilizar uma ampla variedade de polissacarídeos como fonte de carbono. Neste trabalho, descrevemos a caracterização de dois genes de T. reesei, Trhxt1 e Trhxt2, que codificam proteínas com alta similaridade a transportadores de glicose de vários microorganismos. Os dois genes foram identificados em um banco de dados de ESTs de T. reesei. A análise computacional de Trhxt1 e Trhxt2 indica que ambos fazem parte da major facilitator superfamily (MFS), apresentando, tipicamente, 12 segmentos transmembrânicos. A expressão de Trhxt1 ocorre apenas em baixos níveis de glicose(≈ 100 µmol 1-1), enquanto a de Trhxt2 parece ocorrer de forma constitutiva, independentemente da fonte de carbono. Em baixas concentrações de oxigênio, a expressão de Trhxt1 é induzida e a de Trhxt2, reprimida. O sistema de transporte em T. reesei apresenta um componente de afinidade muito alta por glicose (Km ≈ 20 µmol 1-1) semelhante ao de outros fungos filamentosos. Dados sobre o transporte de glicose em uma cepa mutante ΔTrhxt1 indicam que o gene Trhxt1 está envolvido com o transporte em baixos níveis de glicose (≤ 100 µmol 1-1) que correspondem, provavelmente, aos valores encontrados no solo, o habitat natural de T. reesei.. Interessantemente, a indução do sistema de celulases de T. reesei por celulose está retardada no mutante ΔTrhxt1, o que sugere a importância do transporte de glicose na expressão dos genes das celulases. Finalmente, além de descrever os primeiros genes de transportadores de glicose em T. reesei, esperamos que este trabalho possa contribuir para o preenchimento de uma lacuna em relação ao transporte de açúcares em fungos filamentosos em geral. / The filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei is a natural soil inhabitant capable of metabolizing a vast number of polysaccharide substrates. In this work, we describe two genes of T. reesei, named Trhxt1 and Trhxt2, which code for proteins with significant similarities to glucose transporters from other fungi. These genes were identified in an EST database of T. reesei. Sequence analysis of TrHXT1 and TrHXT2 revealed 12 putative transmembrane domains and several other characteristic motifs found in members of the major facilitator superfamily (MFS). Trhxt1 is transcriptionally induced only by low levels of glucose(≈ 100 µmol 1-1), while Trhxt2 expressionis independent of both glucose concentration and carbon source. We also show that Trhxt1 expression is enhanced when cells are exposured to low oxygen levels; in contrast, Trhxt2 expression seems to be repressed at these conditions. Glucose transport in T. reesei is apparently mediated by a multicomponent uptake system, in which the high-affiníty component has a Km of approximately 20 µmol 1-1. This low Km value is similar to the values reported for glucose uptake by other filamentous fungi. Kinetics of glucose transport in a T. reesei ΔTrhxt1 strain suggests that Trhxt1 is involved in glucose uptake in conditions of low glucose (≤ 100 µmol 1-1), which are most probably found in the soil, a low-nutrient environment. Interestingly, índuction ofthe T. reesei cellulase system by cellulose ís significantly delayed in the ΔTrhxt1 mutant, suggesting that glucose transport may be important to the mechanisms of expression of the cellulase genes. Finally, we hope that this work may be helpful to provide a better understanding of sugar uptake in filamentous fungi, for which there is little information available.

O gene TrSNF1, homólogo aos membros da subfamília das proteínas serina-treonina quinases ativadas por AMP (AMPK) e relacionadas a SNF1, foi isolado do fungo filamentoso trichoderma reesei. A seqüência de aminoácidos putativa possui um domínio de quinase com 42% de identidade e 59% de similaridade com outras proteínas quinases da mesma subfamília. Em S. cerevisiae a SNFl é essencial para a expressão de genes reprimidos por glicose, em resposta a privação de glicose do meio de cultura. A expressão de TrSNFl em levedura mutante para SNF1, restaura a função de SNF1. A expressão de um antisense de TrSNFl em T. reesei causa um atraso na expressão do gene regulado por glicose, CBHI. Além disso, em experimento utilizando matrizes de DNA foi possível observar uma alteração da tendência global da expressão gênica entre a cepa selvagem e a cepa antisense. A observação da homologia estrutural com proteínas quinase da mesma subfamília, a similaridade funcional com SNFl de S. cerevisiae, e a alteração no padrão da expressão gênica in vivo, sugerem que TrSNFl pode estar envolvido na regulação do metabolismo de carboidratos em T. reesei. / A gene homologue to the members of the AMP-activated/SNFl protein kinase subfamily, TrSNF1, was isolated from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. The predicted protein of 692 amino acids has a kinase domain, that share 42 % identity and 59 % similarity to that of serine/threonine protein kinase of this family. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the SNFl protein kinase is required for expression of glucose repressed genes in response to withdrawal of glucose from the medium. Expression of the Trichoderma reesei SNF1-related sequence in yeast SNFl mutant restores SNFl function. The TrSNFl antisense expression in T. reesei causes a control alteration in the glucose-regulated gene CBHI. The observed structural identity with the AMP-activated/SNFl protein kinase subfamily, and the functional similarity to the yeast SNFl suggest that the TrSNFl may be involved in the regulation of sugar metabolism in Trichoderma reesei.

Não consta resumo na publicação. / The gene encoding actin in the cellulolytic filamentus fungus Trichoderma reesei has been isolated and sequenced. The nucleotide sequence reveals that the gene is composed of 6 exons separated by 5 introns within the coding region. The positions of the introns were predicted by comparison of sequence homology to the genes coding for actin with known amino acid sequence and by identification of splice-site signal sequences. The actin protein of Trichoderma reesei shows extensive homology to the actins of other fungi E. nidulans, 95% , T. lanuginosus, 92% and S. pombae. The T. reesei actin promoter has a CT-rich region, CAAT and GC. There is no obvious TATA sequence in the T. reesei actin promoter. The absence of TATA-like sequence were also observed in anothers genes of T. reesei. An important aspect in molecular biology of filamentous fungi is the analysis, under a specific metabolic events, of the mechanism(s) regulating the expression of constitutive and induced genes. The filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei is considered to be one of the most efficient producer of cellulase, and it serves as a model system for enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis. Expression of the cellulase genes are stringently regulated by the carbon source. Growth on cellulose results in induction of the cellulase transcripts, whereas glucose strongly represses their expression. The availability of a constitutive expressed genes of T. reesei provides not only important information regarding the molecular biology of the fungi, but also is essential for a better understanding of the mechanism(s) controlling the expression of the cellulase transcripts. Under inductive process of the of the major cellulase transcript (cbh1) and its repression by glucose, actin mRNA is constitutively expressed. The present results should be useful for further structural and functional analysis of the elements involved in inductive and constitutive expression of cellulase and actin transcripts.

Le champignon filamenteux, Podospora anserina, possède deux types sexuels, mat+ et mat-, caractérisés chacun par une séquence spécifique. La séquence mat+ contient un seul gène FPR1; la séquence mat- contient trois gènes : FMR1, SMR1 et SMR2. La fonction moléculaire de SMR1 est inconnue, les autres gènes codent des facteurs de transcription qui contrôlent la fécondation (reconnaissance intercellulaire), et le passage d’un syncytium à un hyphe spécialisé binucléé contenant un noyau mat+ et un noyau mat- (reconnaissance internucléaire). Il n’y a pas eu d’analyse exhaustive des gènes impliqués dans la reconnaissance intercellulaire et le mécanisme de la reconnaissance internucléaire est encore inconnu. Afin de déterminer les cibles de FPR1 et FMR1, et les différents mécanismes impliqués, nous avons utilisé une approche microarray. Le profil transcriptomique des souches mat+ et mat- compétentes pour la fécondation a permis d’identifier 157 gènes cibles, et l’analyse transcriptomique des souches mutantes fpr1- et fmr1- a révélé que ces cibles peuvent être soit réprimées, soit activées par FMR1 ou FPR1, ou être sous le contrôle de ces deux facteurs. Ces expériences ont aussi détecté l’existence de 10 gènes activés ou réprimés au même niveau dans mat+ et mat-. La délétion de 32 gènes choisis parmi ces 167 gènes cibles n’a permis de mettre en évidence que deux gènes impliqués dans la fécondation. Les comparaisons des gènes cibles des facteurs de transcription MAT de Gibberella moniliformis et Sordaria macrospora avec ceux de P. anserina révèlent un nombre significatif de gènes cibles communs entre ces espèces, mais ces gènes ont des profils transcriptomiques différents, soulevant la question du rôle de ces gènes cibles. La recherche des gènes cibles de FPR1, FMR1 et SMR2 impliqués dans la reconnaissance internuléaire a été effectuée en comparant le transcriptome des périthèces issus de deux croisements, l’un n’exprimant que les gènes spécifiques mat+, l’autre que les gènes spécifiques mat-. Les résultats ont été interprétés selon le modèle d’identité nucléaire et le modèle de ségrégation aléatoire. Le premier modèle a conduit à l’identification de 27 gènes cibles, tandis que 154 gènes cibles ont été identifiés en appliquant le deuxième modèle. Au total 46 souches mutantes ont été construites. Cependant aucune délétion n’a affecté le développement sexué. En parallèle de ces expériences transcriptomiques, nous avons invalidé tous les gènes à HMG-box de P. anserina. Les résultats montrent que ces derniers ont un rôle très important dans le développement sexué, particulièrement Pa_1_13940 qui code un régulateur des gènes des types sexuels, le premier identifié chez les Pezizomycotina. / The filamentous fungus, Podospora anserina, has two mating-type idiomorphs, mat+ and mat-. The mat+ sequence contains one gene FPR1, while mat- contains three genes: FMR1, SMR1 and SMR2. The molecular function of SMR1 is unknown, FPR1, FMR1 and SMR2 encode transcriptional regulators which control the fertilization (intercellular recognition) and the transition from a syncytium to a specialized dikaryotic hypha which contains one mat+ and one mat- nucleus (internuclear recognition). No exhaustive analysis is available for the genes involved in the intercellular recognition, while the mechanism of the internuclear recognition is unknown. In order to understand the mechanism of these events and to identify the target genes of mating-type transcription factors, we used a microarray approach. The transcriptomic profiles of the mat+ and mat- strains that are competent for fertilization revealed 157 differentially transcribed genes, and transcriptomic analysis of fmr1- and fpr1- mutant strains was used to determine the regulatory actions exerted by FMR1 and FPR1 on these differentially transcribed genes. All possible combinations of transcription repression and/or activation by FMR1 and/or FPR1 were observed. Furthermore, 10 additional mating-type target genes were identified that were up- or down-regulated to the same level in mat+ and mat- strains. Of the 167 genes identified, 32 genes were selected for deletion, which resulted in the identification of two genes essential for the sexual cycle. A comparison with similar data set from the two ascomycetes, Gibberella moniliformis and Sordaria macrospora, reveals significant numbers of orthologous pairs, although transcriptional profiles were not conserved between species, questioning the function of these target genes. Internuclear recognition was investigated by the transcriptomic analysis of perithecia from two crosses expressing mat+ and mat- genes, respectively. The tow internuclear recognition models: nuclear identity and random segregation, were used to interpret our results. According to the former model, 27 target genes have been identified, while 154 target genes were identified with the latter model. A total of 46 mutant strains were constructed. However, these strains showed no defects in sexual development. Besides this microarray experiences, we have invalidated all HMG-box genes of P. anserina. The results show that the HMG-box genes have a very important role in sexual development, especially Pa_1_13940 which encodes the first identified regulator of Pezizomycotinan mating-type genes.

Magnaporthe grisea est responsable de la pyriculariose du riz, principale maladie de cette céréale. L’entrée du champignon dans la plante hôte se fait via l’appressorium. La différenciation de cette structure résulte d’une réorientation génétique et métabolique, et nécessite une régulation génétique fine. Une étude transcriptomique comparant les stades mycélium et appressorium a permis de montrer qu’environ 1300 ORFs sont surexprimées au stade appressorial. Ce transcriptome a permis l’identification de 32 gènes codant pour des facteurs de transcription pour lesquels dix mutants de délétion ont été générés et caractérisés. L’étude de leur pouvoir infectieux a révélé que le mutant délété du gène TF7 présente une pathogénie réduite de 70% sur plant d’orge. De plus, ce mutant est incapable de former des appressoria sur membrane artificielle sauf en présence d’un inducteur chimique (1,16- hexadecanediol). Par ailleurs, lorsque les appressoria sont formés, ils éclatent au bout de 14 heures. Cette altération peut être compensée par l’addition de sorbitol comme osmoprotecteur. Ce mutant est hypersensible à la Nikkomycine Z, un inhibiteur de la chitine synthase suggérant une altération du métabolisme pariétal. Un transcriptome différentiel réalisé à partir d’appressoria sauvages et mutés différenciés sur membrane de Téflon a révélé que des gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme de la chitine sont sous-exprimés dans le mutant ΔTf7. Le facteur de transcription Tf22 dont la délétion conduit à une réduction de 70% de la pathogénie sur riz a également fait l’objet d’une attention particulière. En effet, la recherche d’homologie a montré la présence de deux protéines homologues à Tf22 chez les deux champignons phytopathogènes S. nodorum et C. nicotianae et au-delà de la conservation d’un cluster potentiel de gènes du métabolisme secondaire, identifié chez C.nicotianae. La caractérisation du mutant a montré que l’expression de ce cluster potentiel est régulée négativement par le gène TF22 / Magnaporthe grisea is responsible for rice blast, the major disease of rice. The entry of the fungus in the host plant is via a specialized cell called appressorium. The differentiation of this structure results from a genetic and metabolic shift, and requires fine control mechanisms. A transcriptomic study comparing vegetative mycelium and appressorium mature stage, characteristic of the pre-penetration step was realized. In order to identify new regulatory networks specific of the appressorial differentiation, we focused on 32 genes encodi. Ten deletion mutants of transcription factor genes were generated and characterized. The study of their infectivity revealed that the TF7 gene deleted mutant has a reduced pathogenicity of 70% on barley plant resulting from an inability to penetrate the plant surface. Moreover, unlike the parental strain, this mutant is unable to form appressoria on artificial membrane except in the presence of a chemical inducer (1.16-hexadecanediol). Moreover, when appressoria are formed, they burst after 14 hours. This alteration can be compensated by a sorbitol solution acting as an osmoprotectant. This mutant is hypersensitive to nikkomycin Z, a chitin synthase inhibitor suggesting an alteration of parietal metabolism. A differential transcriptome was conducted comparing wild and mutated appressoria differentiated on Teflon membrane revealed that genes involved in chitin metabolism are dependent on the transcription factor Tf7. A second transcription factor Tf22 whose, deletion leads to a reduction of 70% of pathogenesis on rice, has also been studied. Indeed, the homology search showed the presence of two proteins homologous to Tf22 for S. nodorum and C. nicotianae. Beyond the conservation of the transcription factor, we observed the conservation of a potential cluster of genes of secondary metabolism identified in C.nicotianae. The characterization of the mutant revealed that expression of this potential cluster is negatively regulated by the gene TF22

O gene TrSNF1, homólogo aos membros da subfamília das proteínas serina-treonina quinases ativadas por AMP (AMPK) e relacionadas a SNF1, foi isolado do fungo filamentoso trichoderma reesei. A seqüência de aminoácidos putativa possui um domínio de quinase com 42% de identidade e 59% de similaridade com outras proteínas quinases da mesma subfamília. Em S. cerevisiae a SNFl é essencial para a expressão de genes reprimidos por glicose, em resposta a privação de glicose do meio de cultura. A expressão de TrSNFl em levedura mutante para SNF1, restaura a função de SNF1. A expressão de um antisense de TrSNFl em T. reesei causa um atraso na expressão do gene regulado por glicose, CBHI. Além disso, em experimento utilizando matrizes de DNA foi possível observar uma alteração da tendência global da expressão gênica entre a cepa selvagem e a cepa antisense. A observação da homologia estrutural com proteínas quinase da mesma subfamília, a similaridade funcional com SNFl de S. cerevisiae, e a alteração no padrão da expressão gênica in vivo, sugerem que TrSNFl pode estar envolvido na regulação do metabolismo de carboidratos em T. reesei. / A gene homologue to the members of the AMP-activated/SNFl protein kinase subfamily, TrSNF1, was isolated from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. The predicted protein of 692 amino acids has a kinase domain, that share 42 % identity and 59 % similarity to that of serine/threonine protein kinase of this family. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the SNFl protein kinase is required for expression of glucose repressed genes in response to withdrawal of glucose from the medium. Expression of the Trichoderma reesei SNF1-related sequence in yeast SNFl mutant restores SNFl function. The TrSNFl antisense expression in T. reesei causes a control alteration in the glucose-regulated gene CBHI. The observed structural identity with the AMP-activated/SNFl protein kinase subfamily, and the functional similarity to the yeast SNFl suggest that the TrSNFl may be involved in the regulation of sugar metabolism in Trichoderma reesei.

Não consta resumo na publicação. / The gene encoding actin in the cellulolytic filamentus fungus Trichoderma reesei has been isolated and sequenced. The nucleotide sequence reveals that the gene is composed of 6 exons separated by 5 introns within the coding region. The positions of the introns were predicted by comparison of sequence homology to the genes coding for actin with known amino acid sequence and by identification of splice-site signal sequences. The actin protein of Trichoderma reesei shows extensive homology to the actins of other fungi E. nidulans, 95% , T. lanuginosus, 92% and S. pombae. The T. reesei actin promoter has a CT-rich region, CAAT and GC. There is no obvious TATA sequence in the T. reesei actin promoter. The absence of TATA-like sequence were also observed in anothers genes of T. reesei. An important aspect in molecular biology of filamentous fungi is the analysis, under a specific metabolic events, of the mechanism(s) regulating the expression of constitutive and induced genes. The filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei is considered to be one of the most efficient producer of cellulase, and it serves as a model system for enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis. Expression of the cellulase genes are stringently regulated by the carbon source. Growth on cellulose results in induction of the cellulase transcripts, whereas glucose strongly represses their expression. The availability of a constitutive expressed genes of T. reesei provides not only important information regarding the molecular biology of the fungi, but also is essential for a better understanding of the mechanism(s) controlling the expression of the cellulase transcripts. Under inductive process of the of the major cellulase transcript (cbh1) and its repression by glucose, actin mRNA is constitutively expressed. The present results should be useful for further structural and functional analysis of the elements involved in inductive and constitutive expression of cellulase and actin transcripts.