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The determinants that affect the financial performance of an insurance company are complicated due to the intangible nature of insurance products and the lack of transparency in the market. Consequently, the financial performance of insurance companies is important to various stakeholders such as policyholders, insurance intermediaries and policymakers. This study aims to investigate the determinants of financial performance of insurance companies based on their financial strength rating performance. The empirical data are drawn from A.M. Best Insurance Report Online: Non- US Database. The sample consists of 57 insurers in the United Kingdom over the period of 2006 to 2010. The analyses include eight firm-specific variables, which are leverage, profitability, liquidity, size, reinsurance, growth, type of business and organisational form. Rating transition matrices and regression models are employed in this study. Rating transition analysis demonstrates a significant degree of rating changes, as reflected in the rating fluctuations. Based on the empirical results, this study establishes that profitability, liquidity, size and organisational form are statistically significant determinants of financial performance of insurance companies in the United Kingdom. This study recommends an alternative to measure the size of an insurance company, which is based on the gross premium written. In addition, this study provides insights into the effects of the global financial crisis on the financial performance of the insurance companies.

The determinants that affect the financial performance of an insurance company are complicated due to the intangible nature of insurance products and the lack of transparency in the market. Consequently, the financial performance of insurance companies is important to various stakeholders such as policyholders, insurance intermediaries and policymakers. This study aims to investigate the determinants of financial performance of insurance companies based on their financial strength rating performance. The empirical data are drawn from A.M. Best Insurance Report Online: Non- US Database. The sample consists of 57 insurers in the United Kingdom over the period of 2006 to 2010. The analyses include eight firm-specific variables, which are leverage, profitability, liquidity, size, reinsurance, growth, type of business and organisational form. Rating transition matrices and regression models are employed in this study. Rating transition analysis demonstrates a significant degree of rating changes, as reflected in the rating fluctuations. Based on the empirical results, this study establishes that profitability, liquidity, size and organisational form are statistically significant determinants of financial performance of insurance companies in the United Kingdom. This study recommends an alternative to measure the size of an insurance company, which is based on the gross premium written. In addition, this study provides insights into the effects of the global financial crisis on the financial performance of the insurance companies. / Ministry of Education of Malaysia; Universiti Utara Malaysia

In a world facing environmental destruction and social injustices, corporations are called upon to act more sustainably. There has been an upswing in demand for green investments in the last decades, a trend further facilitated by the covid-19 pandemic. The increased demand has prompted scholars to investigate the relation between ESG-ratings and corporate financial performance. Despite a multitude of research being conducted in the field, it is difficult for firms and investors alike to get a grasp of the relation between the two as results are not coherent. The inconsistency in previous research implies further research in the field is necessary to improve the understanding of the relationship between ESG-ratings and corporate financial performance. A myriad of scholars has investigated the relation between ESG-ratings and corporate financial performance, research has found positive, insignificant, and even negative relationships between the variables. To further explore this relation, this thesis aims to answer the research question “Is there a relationship between ESG-scores and financial strength in publicly traded Swedish companies?”. By answering this research question, this thesis aims to provide additional insights on the relationship between ESG-scores and corporate financial performance. This thesis uses an unconventional proxy, the Piotroski F-score, to measurefinancial performance. The results of this study are analysed through the lens of economic theories such as the Efficient Market Hypothesis, Agency Theory, and Stakeholder theory. This is a panel data analysis based on 622 observations of Swedish firms through the years 2020-2022. Under a positivist paradigm with a deductive approach, this thesis seeks to contribute to the academic discourse on ESG-ratings and their relation to financial performance. The results were obtained through a pooled regression analysis with robust standard errors. The results of the regression showed that within Swedish publicly traded firms, the social pillar of the ESG-score has a significant relation to financial strength.

This dissertation consists of two topics. Chapter 1 explores the relationship between firm transparency and managerial behaviors of the U.S. Property-Casualty (P&C) insurers. Using data between 1996 and 2015, we test whether credit rating agencies (CRAs) provide useful information to monitor insurers’ loss reserve management behaviors as watchdogs. In addition, we investigate how insurers recognize the rating difference given by different CRAs. We find that holding a rating does not necessarily affect insurers’ reserve management behaviors. However, loss reserve estimation tends to be more accurate as more ratings are given to an insurer. Such findings suggest that multiple CRAs stimulate insurers to accurately estimate their reserves through the enhanced monitoring function. We also find a marginal impact of rating difference on an insurer’s loss reserve estimation. Firms with rating difference tend to underestimate their loss reserves. Nevertheless, this does not considerably deteriorate the reserve forecast accuracy. Although the Sarbanes–Oxley Act (SOX) aims at regulating publicly traded firms, it seems to affect over the market. Our empirical results show that insurers’ reserve estimation accuracy is improved after the enactment of the SOX. Moreover, the enactment of SOX alleviates an under-reserving behavior of firms with rating difference. Chapter 2 investigates the derivative practice of the U.S. life insurers. Over the last two decades, derivatives have been used extensively as a risk management tool in the financial market. In the U.S. insurance market, life insurers have accounted for over 95% of total derivative transactions, a proportion much higher than that in other countries. However, there are only a few prior studies examining the practical use of derivatives in the U.S. life insurance market. In addition, several limitations exist in terms of data they used (single-year, outdated, and inaccurate). In this study, we compile accurate derivative transaction data by taking a close look at the underlying asset and the traded market. We then examine the determinants of derivative (swap in particular) participation and the extent of transactions using samples from 2001 to 2015 which includes major events such as the U.S. financial crisis and the Dodd-Frank Act. We find that the determinants of derivative/swap participation are different from those of transaction volumes. We also find that the impact of the financial crisis on derivative usage is very limited in the life insurance market. However, the enactment of the Dodd-Frank Act not only reduces the likelihood of swap participation but also stagnates the growth of the swap transaction volumes, while the total derivative transaction volumes are significantly increased. Such findings indicate that the costs of the new regulation outweigh its benefits, due to the inefficient and inadequate regulatory changes. / Business Administration/Risk Management and Insurance

<p>Summary</p><p>The purpose of this thesis is to examine what effect the IFRS 2 has on earnings, equity, financial strength and return on equity for listed Swedish companies with active stock option plans. The purpose is further to investigate the companies’ attitudes towards IFRS 2 and to find out if companies tend to deviate from stock option plans due to the changed accounting rules. We also want to examine the view of IFRS 2 from an auditor’s perspective.</p><p>We have used a deductive approach and a mix of quantitative and qualitative research methods with a view to get a completely clear picture within the field of study. The questionnaire aims at measuring the same characteristics among the companies to find causal links, and the interviews are made to obtain a high internal validity so that connections between the body of regulations and the companies’ opinions and actions appear. The purpose of the theory chapter is to give the reader an understanding of what stock option plans are and why they are frequently used within companies. The IFRS 2 constitutes the base of the theory chapter. The international debate gives the reader a feeling for how common stock option plans are in the United States and what arguments there are for and against the expensing of stock options, which will be introduced in the United States in 2006. In our empirical chapter, we present the information collected from fifty-six companies by a questionnaire, followed by the interviews from the two companies that we have been in deeper contact with. We also present the opinions by the representatives from the two audit firms. The empirical chapter finishes with a calculation of the two interviewed companies changes in return on equity.</p><p>The conclusion of this thesis is that the IFRS 2 is considered complicated by many companies. There is a lack of knowledge about the new standard among the companies and, for that reason; they are forced to seek help by audit firms, which result in large administrative costs, especially for smaller companies. We have observed that the attitude towards the IFRS 2 therefore differs depending on the company’s size. The IFRS 2 has a negative effect on net income for most of the companies with the exception of those who offer their employees stock options at market value, or have valued their stock option plans according to the “intrinsic method”. The change in return on equity has only a marginal effect for most companies. Further conclusions are that companies will not deviate from stock option programs as long as they are well-working incentives, but they may look them over more carefully and compare them to other alternatives. The audit firms are positive to the IFRS 2 and think that expensing stock options will lead to better comparability.</p><p>Keywords: IFRS 2, Financial Strength, profitability, Stock options</p> / <p>Uppsatsens syfte är att undersöka vilka effekter införandet av IFRS 2 har på resultat, eget kapital, soliditet och räntabilitet för svenska börsnoterade bolag som har aktiva optionsprogram. Syftet är vidare att undersöka börsnoterade bolags attityd till IFRS 2, samt om det finns tendenser att frångå optionsprogram som ersättningsform p.g.a. de ändrade redovisningsreglerna. Vi vill även ta reda på hur revisorer ser på IFRS 2.</p><p>Vi har använt oss av den deduktiva strategin och en blandning av en kvantitativ och en kvalitativ undersökningsmetod, i syfte att få en så fullständig klarhet som möjligt inom ämnesområdet. Enkätundersökningen strävar efter att mäta samma egenskaper hos undersökningsobjekten för att finna orsak-samband, medan intervjuerna syftar till att ge en hög intern giltighet så att samband mellan regelverk, åsikter och agerande framträder. Vi vill, genom informationen i teorikapitlet, att läsaren ska få en förståelse för vad optionsprogram är och varför det används inom företag. IFRS 2 och dess omfattning utgör grunden i teorikapitlet och syftar till att redogöra för vilken redovisningsteori som tillämpas i och med IFRS 2. Genom den internationella debatten vill vi att läsaren ska få en känsla för hur vanligt optionsprogram är i USA och vilka argument det finns för och mot införandet av kostnadsföring av optionsprogram, som sker i USA innan 2006 års utgång. I vårt empirikapitel presenterar vi enkätundersökningen där femtiosex svenska börsnoterade företag har medverkat. Därefter introduceras intervjuerna från de båda företagen vi varit i kontakt med, för att sedan följas åt av reflektioner från revisionsbyråernas två representanter. Empirin avslutas med en beräkning av de två intervjuade företagens räntabilitetsförändring.</p><p>Vi har kommit fram till att IFRS 2 anses vara komplicerad av många företag och har framförallt för små företag medfört stora administrativa kostnader då många blir tvungna att söka hjälp hos revisionsbyråer. Attityden gentemot IFRS 2 verkar därför skifta beroende på företagens storlek. Resultatet har påverkats negativt för de flesta företag med undantag för dem som erbjuder sina anställda optioner till marknadsvärde eller tidigare har värderat optionerna enligt ”intrinsic-metoden”. Räntabilitetsförändringen har endast en marginell påverkan för de flesta företag. Så länge optionsprogrammen är väl fungerande incitament så har vi inte sett några tendenser till att företagen verkar frångå sina optionsprogram. Vi tror däremot att företagen hädanefter kommer se över sina optionsprogram noggrannare så att inte kostnaderna blir för stora. Det är möjligt att andra typer av incitament kommer bli vanligare t.ex. aktieköpsplaner. Revisionsbyråerna är mycket positiva till IFRS 2 och anser att jämförbarheten företag emellan har ökat sedan dess införande.</p><p>Nyckelord: IFRS 2, Soliditet, Räntabilitet, egetkapitalreglerade - kontantreglerade ersättningar</p>

Summary The purpose of this thesis is to examine what effect the IFRS 2 has on earnings, equity, financial strength and return on equity for listed Swedish companies with active stock option plans. The purpose is further to investigate the companies’ attitudes towards IFRS 2 and to find out if companies tend to deviate from stock option plans due to the changed accounting rules. We also want to examine the view of IFRS 2 from an auditor’s perspective. We have used a deductive approach and a mix of quantitative and qualitative research methods with a view to get a completely clear picture within the field of study. The questionnaire aims at measuring the same characteristics among the companies to find causal links, and the interviews are made to obtain a high internal validity so that connections between the body of regulations and the companies’ opinions and actions appear. The purpose of the theory chapter is to give the reader an understanding of what stock option plans are and why they are frequently used within companies. The IFRS 2 constitutes the base of the theory chapter. The international debate gives the reader a feeling for how common stock option plans are in the United States and what arguments there are for and against the expensing of stock options, which will be introduced in the United States in 2006. In our empirical chapter, we present the information collected from fifty-six companies by a questionnaire, followed by the interviews from the two companies that we have been in deeper contact with. We also present the opinions by the representatives from the two audit firms. The empirical chapter finishes with a calculation of the two interviewed companies changes in return on equity. The conclusion of this thesis is that the IFRS 2 is considered complicated by many companies. There is a lack of knowledge about the new standard among the companies and, for that reason; they are forced to seek help by audit firms, which result in large administrative costs, especially for smaller companies. We have observed that the attitude towards the IFRS 2 therefore differs depending on the company’s size. The IFRS 2 has a negative effect on net income for most of the companies with the exception of those who offer their employees stock options at market value, or have valued their stock option plans according to the “intrinsic method”. The change in return on equity has only a marginal effect for most companies. Further conclusions are that companies will not deviate from stock option programs as long as they are well-working incentives, but they may look them over more carefully and compare them to other alternatives. The audit firms are positive to the IFRS 2 and think that expensing stock options will lead to better comparability. Keywords: IFRS 2, Financial Strength, profitability, Stock options / Uppsatsens syfte är att undersöka vilka effekter införandet av IFRS 2 har på resultat, eget kapital, soliditet och räntabilitet för svenska börsnoterade bolag som har aktiva optionsprogram. Syftet är vidare att undersöka börsnoterade bolags attityd till IFRS 2, samt om det finns tendenser att frångå optionsprogram som ersättningsform p.g.a. de ändrade redovisningsreglerna. Vi vill även ta reda på hur revisorer ser på IFRS 2. Vi har använt oss av den deduktiva strategin och en blandning av en kvantitativ och en kvalitativ undersökningsmetod, i syfte att få en så fullständig klarhet som möjligt inom ämnesområdet. Enkätundersökningen strävar efter att mäta samma egenskaper hos undersökningsobjekten för att finna orsak-samband, medan intervjuerna syftar till att ge en hög intern giltighet så att samband mellan regelverk, åsikter och agerande framträder. Vi vill, genom informationen i teorikapitlet, att läsaren ska få en förståelse för vad optionsprogram är och varför det används inom företag. IFRS 2 och dess omfattning utgör grunden i teorikapitlet och syftar till att redogöra för vilken redovisningsteori som tillämpas i och med IFRS 2. Genom den internationella debatten vill vi att läsaren ska få en känsla för hur vanligt optionsprogram är i USA och vilka argument det finns för och mot införandet av kostnadsföring av optionsprogram, som sker i USA innan 2006 års utgång. I vårt empirikapitel presenterar vi enkätundersökningen där femtiosex svenska börsnoterade företag har medverkat. Därefter introduceras intervjuerna från de båda företagen vi varit i kontakt med, för att sedan följas åt av reflektioner från revisionsbyråernas två representanter. Empirin avslutas med en beräkning av de två intervjuade företagens räntabilitetsförändring. Vi har kommit fram till att IFRS 2 anses vara komplicerad av många företag och har framförallt för små företag medfört stora administrativa kostnader då många blir tvungna att söka hjälp hos revisionsbyråer. Attityden gentemot IFRS 2 verkar därför skifta beroende på företagens storlek. Resultatet har påverkats negativt för de flesta företag med undantag för dem som erbjuder sina anställda optioner till marknadsvärde eller tidigare har värderat optionerna enligt ”intrinsic-metoden”. Räntabilitetsförändringen har endast en marginell påverkan för de flesta företag. Så länge optionsprogrammen är väl fungerande incitament så har vi inte sett några tendenser till att företagen verkar frångå sina optionsprogram. Vi tror däremot att företagen hädanefter kommer se över sina optionsprogram noggrannare så att inte kostnaderna blir för stora. Det är möjligt att andra typer av incitament kommer bli vanligare t.ex. aktieköpsplaner. Revisionsbyråerna är mycket positiva till IFRS 2 och anser att jämförbarheten företag emellan har ökat sedan dess införande. Nyckelord: IFRS 2, Soliditet, Räntabilitet, egetkapitalreglerade - kontantreglerade ersättningar

This dissertation consists of three essays: essay 1, Underwriting Use of Credit Information and Firm Performance ‐ An Empirical Study of Texas Property‐Liability Insurers, essay 2, Prediction of Ratings in Property‐Liability Industry when The Organizational Form Is Endogenous, and essay 3, A Discussion of Parsimonious Methods Predicting Insurance Companies Ratings. The purpose of the first essay is to investigate the influence of underwriting use of credit information on variation in insurers’ underwriting performance. Specifically, this study addresses the following two research questions: first, what firm‐level characteristics are associated with the insurers’ decision to use credit information in underwriting? second, is there a relationship between the use of credit information and variation in insurers’ underwriting performance? The empirical results indicate that larger insurance companies, companies having more business in personal auto insurance, and those with greater use of reinsurance are more likely to use credit information in underwriting. More importantly, the results indicate that use of credit information is associated with lower variation in underwriting performance, consistent with the hypothesis that use of credit information enables insurers to better predict their losses. The purpose of the second essay is to resolve the inconsistent relationship between the organizational forms (i.e., stock versus mutual insurers) and insurers’ financial strength ratings. Specifically, this study takes into account the potential endogenous nature of organizational forms to investigate the influence of organizational forms on insurers’ financial strength ratings. The empirical results from the models employed indicate that the stock dummy variable is indeed a significant predictor of insurers’ ratings and that the relationship between the stock dummy and insurers’ financial strength ratings is not affected after the endogenous nature of organizational forms is considered. However, such relationship flips to be negative when additional rating predictors are included into the models. The purpose of the third essay is to investigate whether a logistic model is consistent in its predictions within one data set and compare the predictability and classificatory performance between the regression with a set of financial variables and the regression with principal components derived from this set of financial variables. The empirical results indicate that the models’ predictability is consistent within one data set which includes two different groups of observations. Also, the findings suggest that the principal components regression as a parsimonious model achieves the similar accuracy of estimation and fit while providing clearer interpretation of the role of the significant predictors.

Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka den relation som finns mellan företagsmässiga faktorer, som enligt teori och tidigare litteratur kan påverka företags hållbarhetsredovisning, och deras ESG-betyg. Följaktligen är syftet även att undersöka om det finns skillnader i hållbarhetsredovisningen för medlemsländer i EU och övriga länder i regionen Europa, för att utröna om den Europeiska unionens lagar och regler har spridits över gränser och på så sätt institutionaliserats. Metod: Studien använder sig av en deduktiv ansats med en kvantitativ metod, för att undersöka data insamlad från årsredovisningar via databasen Refinitiv för perioden 2020–2023. ESG-betyg generareas av databasen och är inhämtat i samband med övriga data. Urvalet består av cirka 2 500 publika företag inom regionen Europa. De hypoteser som studien leder fram till testas stegvis genom multipel regressionsanalys. Den beroende variabeln är ESG-betyg och de oberoende är finansiell styrka, FoU, EU samt miljökänslig bransch. Studien använder sig även av två kontrollvariabler; företagsstorlek samt skuldsättningsgrad. Slutsats: Undersökningen kunde lokalisera ett negativt signifikant samband mellan ESG och finansiell styrka. Det styrker viss tidigare forskning som påvisat ett negativt samband mellan dessa variabler. Resultatet går i linje med intressentteorin, de företag som tar sitt sociala ansvar kan välja att avstå från lukrativa affärsmöjligheter och kan där med inneha en lägre finansiell styrka. Studien kunde även se signifikanta positiva samband mellan ESG och FoU samt EU tillhörighet. En slutsats som dras från detta resultat är att de företag som investerar i FoU även tenderar att ha en starkare hållbarhetsredovisning och tar sitt sociala ansvar. Studien styrker uppfattningen om att innovation är nyckeln till hållbarhet. Originalitet/värde: Tidigare studier som har undersökt sambandet mellan hållbarhetsredovisning och företagsmässiga faktorer har kontradiktoriska resultat. Därmed finns det utrymme för att vidare undersöka dessa samband och bekräfta eller dementera tidigare forskning. Denna studie bidrar till ökad kunskap för relationen mellan ESG och företagsmässiga faktorer för publika företag inom Europa. Studien belyser även skillnader som finns på detta område mellan företag med huvudkontor inom EU och de företag som är belägna i övriga Europa. / The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between corporate factors, which according to theory and previous literature can influence their sustainability reporting, and their ESG score. Consequently, the aim is also to investigate if there are differences in sustainability reporting among EU member countries and other countries in the European region, in order to determine if the laws and regulations of EU have spread across borders and thereby institutionalized. Method: The study employs a deductive approach with a quantitative method to examine data collected from annual reports through the Refinitiv database for the period 2020-2023. ESG scores are generated by the database and are obtained alongside other data. The sample consists of approximately 2,500 public companies within the European region. The hypotheses generated by the study are assessed incrementally through multiple regression analysis. The dependent variable is the ESG score, and the independent variables are financial strength, R&amp;D, EU membership, and environmentally sensitive industry. The study also includes two control variables: company size and leverage ratio. Conclusion: The study was able to identify a significant negative relationship between ESG and financial strength. This supports previous research that has demonstrated a negative association between these variables. The result aligns with stakeholder theory, as companies that prioritize social responsibility may choose to forgo lucrative business opportunities, potentially leading to lower financial strength. The study also found significant positive relationships between ESG and R&amp;D as well as EU membership. A conclusion drawn from these findings is that companies investing in R&amp;D also tend to have stronger sustainability reporting and demonstrate social responsibility. The study reinforces the belief that innovation is the key to sustainability. Originality/Value: Previous studies examining the relationship between sustainability reporting and corporate factors have yielded contradictory results. Therefore, there is room for further investigation to confirm or refute prior research. This study contributes to increased knowledge regarding the relationship between ESG and corporate factors for public companies within Europe. The study also highlights differences in this area between companies headquartered in the EU and tho

Cette thèse traite de deux nouveaux débats sur le central banking qui ont émergé après la crise financière de 2008: le débat sur les pertes financières aux bilans des banques centrales, et le débat sur le niveau élevé des taux bancaires par rapport aux taux de marché après la crise. Les deux premiers chapitres s’inscrivent dans le premier débat. Le lien entre la solidité financière des banques centrales et l’inflation est étudié empiriquement dans le premier chapitre, en se basant sur un large panel de 82 pays. Théoriquement, ce lien est potentiellement présent lorsque le gouvernement ne soutient pas financièrement la banque centrale et que celle-ci ne peut donc compter que sur elle-même pour améliorer sa situation financière. Les résultats du premier chapitre montrent qu’en pratique tel est effectivement le cas: les détériorations aux bilans des banques centrales s’accompagnent d’une inflation plus forte lorsque la banque centrale n’a pas de soutien fiscal. Les résultats ne montrent pas de lien dans un contexte général, comme la théorie le suggère. Dans le second chapitre, il est analysé et conceptualisé l’argument selon lequel une banque centrale peut mettre fin à un régime de change fixe ou quasi-fixe par peur de futures pertes financières. L’analyse est ensuite appliquée au cas du cours plancher mis en place par la Banque Centrale de Suisse (BNS) entre 2011 et 2015 vis-à-vis de l’euro. Cet argument a été avancé par beaucoup pour expliquer la fin de la politique de cours plancher en Suisse, sans qu’aucune recherche avant celle-ci n’évalue sa pertinence. Les estimations empiriques du Chapitre 2 permettent de montrer que cet argument avait une crédibilité: elles montrent que dans des scénarios crédibles, en cassant le peg avec l’euro 17 mois plus tard, la BNS aurait essuyé une perte considérable, dépassant un seuil perçu comme limite par beaucoup de banquiers centraux. Le dernier chapitre de cette thèse s’intéresse à l’écart entre les taux de dépôts et le taux de marché en zone euro (l’EURIBOR) qui est devenu significativement positif après la crise, conduisant certains à parler de « sur-rémunération » des dépôts. Ce chapitre soutient que la majorité de cet écart ne s’explique non pas par un comportement anormal des dépôts comme certains l’ont avancé, mais au contraire par une perte de pertinence de l’EURIBOR. Construisant une alternative à l’EURIBOR, ce chapitre conclut que le risque bancaire a eu une influence primordiale sur le niveau de rémunération des dépôts dans le monde d’après-crise. / This thesis deals with the new debates on central banking which arose after the 2008 global financial crisis. More particularly, two of such debates are addressed: the debates on the financial losses in central banks’ balance sheets, and the debates on the high level of bank rates compared to market interest rates following the financial crisis. The two first chapters are related to the first debate. The link between central bank financial strength and inflation is empirically examined in a large sample of 82 countries. Theoretically, this link is potentially present when the government does not fiscally support the central bank, so that the central bank can only rely on itself to improve its financial situation. The results show that in practice central bank balance sheet deteriorations indeed lead to higher inflation when fiscal support is absent. The results, based on a particularly meticulous and consistent sample selection, do not show the presence of a link between the two variables in a general context, as the theory suggests. In the second chapter, I analyze and conceptualize the argument according to which a central bank can end a peg exchange rate regime by fear of making significant losses in the future, and I apply this analysis to the Swiss franc peg between 2011 and 2015. This argument was brought forward by many commentators to explain the Swiss move, while no research before this one did study the relevance of this argument. The empirical estimates in Chapter 2 show that this argument indeed had some credibility: under some credible scenarios the Swiss central bank would have incurred significant losses by breaking its peg 17 months later, with losses exceeding a threshold judged as relevant by many central bankers. The last chapter of this thesis focuses on the spread between deposit rates and market interest rates in the Eurozone (more specifically, the EURIBOR), which became significantly positive after the financial crisis, leading some commentators to claim that deposits were over-remunerated. This chapter upholds that the major part of this spread is not due to an « abnormal » behavior of deposits but is rather due to the fact that the EURIBOR has become irrelevant after the global financial crisis. Building an alternative to the EURIBOR, the chapter concludes that banking risks have been having a major influence on the level of deposit remuneration.