The existence of flammable aerosols presents a high potential for fire hazards in the process industry. Various industrial fluids, most of which operate at elevated temperatures and pressures, can be atomized when released under high pressure through a small orifice. Because of the complexity in the process of aerosol formation and combustion, the availability of data on aerosol flammability and flame propagation behaviors is still quite limited, making it difficult to evaluate the potential fire and explosion risks from released aerosols in the process industry and develop safety measures for preventing and/or mitigating aerosol hazards. A study is needed to investigate the relationship between aerosol combustion behaviors and the properties of the aerosols. This dissertation presents research on the combustion behaviors of flammable aerosols. Monodisperse aerosols created by industrial heat transfer fluids were generated using electrospray. The characteristics of flame propagations in aerosols and the influence of the presence of fuel droplets in the system are studied in the aerosol ignition tests. Flames in aerosols are characterized by non-uniform shapes and discrete flame fronts. Flames were observed in different burning modes. Droplet evaporation was found to play an important role in aerosol burning modes. Droplet evaporation behaviors and fuel vapor distributions are further related to aerosol droplet size, droplet spacing, movement velocity, and liquid volatility. The burning mode of a global flame with rapid size expansion is considered the most hazardous aerosol combustion scenario. This burning mode requires a smaller droplet size and smaller space between droplets. Larger droplet sizes and spacing may hinder the appearance of global flames. But when the liquid fuel has a certain level of volatility, there is an uneven distribution of fuel vapor in the system and this may cause the unique phenomenon of burning mode variations combined with enhanced flame propagation speed. Using an integrated model, the minimum ignition energy values of aerosols were predicted. The aerosol minimum ignition energy is influenced by the fuel-air equivalence ratio and the droplet size. Higher equivalence ratios, up to 1.0, significantly reduce the minimum ignition energy, while larger droplet sizes result in a higher minimum ignition energy.

Knowledge of flammability limits is essential in the prevention of fire and explosion. There are two limits of flammability, upper flammability limit (UFL) and lower flammability limit (LFL), which define the flammable region of a combustible gas/vapor. This research focuses on the flammability limits of hydrogen and its binary mixtures with light hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, n-butane, and ethylene) at sub-atmospheric pressures. The flammability limits of hydrogen, light hydrocarbons, and binary mixtures of hydrogen and each hydrocarbon were determined experimentally at room temperature (20ºC) and initial pressures ranging from 1.0 atm to 0.1 atm. The experiments were conducted in a closed cylindrical stainless steel vessel with upward flame propagation. It was found that the flammable region of hydrogen initially widens when the pressure decreases from 1.0 atm to 0.3 atm, then narrows with the further decrease of pressure. In contrast, the flammable regions of the hydrocarbons narrow when the pressure decreases. For hydrogen and the hydrocarbons, pressure has a much greater impact on the UFLs than on the LFLs. For binary mixtures of hydrogen and the hydrocarbons, the flammable regions of all mixtures widen when the fraction of hydrogen in the mixture increases. When the pressure decreases, the flammable regions of all mixtures narrow. The applications of Le Chatelier’s rule and the Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (CAFT) model to the flammability limits of the mixtures were verified. It was found that Le Chatelier’s rule could predict the flammability limits much better than the CAFT model. The adiabatic flame temperatures (AFTs), an important parameter in the risk assessment of fire and explosion, of hydrogen and the hydrocarbons were also calculated. The influence of sub-atmospheric pressures on the AFTs was investigated. A linear relationship between the AFT and the corresponding flammability limit is derived. Furthermore, the consequence of fire relating to hydrogen and the hydrocarbons is discussed based on the AFTs of the chemicals.

No description available.

The phenomenon of a fire occurring in nature comes with a very high level of complexity. One central obstacle is the range of scales in such fires. In order to understand wildfires, research has to be conducted across these scales in order to study the mechanisms which drive wildfire behavior. The hazard related to such fires is ever more increasing as the living space of communities continues to increase and infringe with the wildland at the wildland-urban interface. In order to do so, a strong understanding on the possible wildfire behavior that may occur is critical. An array of factors impact wildfire behavior, which are generally categorized into three groups: (1) fuel (type, moisture content, loading, structure, continuity); (2) environmental (wind, temperature, relative humidity, precipitation); and (3) topography (slope, aspect). The complexity and coupling of factors impacting various scales of wildfire behavior has been the focus of much experimental and numerical work over the past decades. More recently, the need to quantify wildland fuel flammability and use the knowledge in mitigating risks, for example by categorizing vegetation according to their flammability has been recognized. Fuel flammability is an integral part of understanding wildfire behavior, since it can provide a quantification of the ignition and burning behavior of wildland fuel beds. Determining flammability parameters for vegetative fuels is however not a straight forward task and a rigorous standardized methodology has yet to be established. It is the intent of this work to aid in the path of finding a most suitable methodology to test vegetative fuel flammability. This is achieved by elucidating the fundamental heat and mass transfer mechanisms that drive ignition and burning behavior of porous wildland fuel beds. The work presented herein is a continuation of vegetative fuel flammability research using bench-scale calorimetry (the FM Global Fire Propagation Apparatus). This apparatus allows a high level of control of critical parameters. Experimental studies investigate how varying external heat flux (radiative), ventilation conditions (forced airflow rate, oxygen concentration, and temperature), and moisture content affect the ignition and burning behavior of wildland fuel. Two distinct ignition regimes were observed for radiative heating with forced convection cooling: (1) convection/radiation for low heating rates; and (2) radiation only for high heating rates. The threshold for the given convection conditions was near 45 kW.m-2. For forced convection, ignition behavior is dominated by convection cooling in comparison to dilution; ignition times were constant when the oxygen flow rate was varied (constant flow magnitude). Analysis of a radiative Biot number including heat losses (convection and radiation) indicated that the pine needles tested behaved thermally thin for the given heating rates (up to 60 kW.m-2). A simplified onedimensional, multi-phase heat transfer model for porous media is validated with experimental results (in-depth temperature measurements, critical heat flux and ignition time). The model performance was adequate for two species only, when the convective Froude number is less than 1.0 (only one packing ratio was tested). Increasing air flow rates resulted in higher heat of combustion due to increased pyrolysis rates. In the given experiments (ventilation controlled environment) combustion efficiency decreased with increasing O2 flow rates. Flaming combustion of pine needles in such environments resulted in four times greater CO generation rates compared to post flaming smoldering combustion. A link was made to live fuel flammability that is important for understanding the occurrence of extreme fire conditions such as crowning and to test if live fuel flammability contributes to the occurrence of a typical fire season. Significant seasonal variations were observed for the ignition and burning behavior of conditioned live pine needles. Variation and peak flammability due to ignition time and heat release rate can be associated to the growing season (physical properties and chemical composition of the needles). Seasonal trends were masked when unconditioned needles were tested as the release of water dominated effects. For wet fuel, ignition time increases linearly with fuel moisture content (FMC, R2 = 0.93). The peak heat release rate decreased non-linearly with FMC (R2 = 0.77). It was determined that above a threshold of 60% FMC (d.w.), seasonal variation in the heat release rate can be neglected. A novel live fuel flammability assessment to evaluate the seasonality of ignition and burning behavior is proposed. For the given case (NJ Pine Barrens, USA), the flammability assessment indicated that the live fuel is most flammable in August. Such assessment can provide a framework for a live fuel flammability classification system that is based on rigorous experimentation in well controlled fire environments.

No description available.

Accurate flash point and flammability limit data are needed to design safe chemical processes. Unfortunately, improper data storage and reporting policies that disregard the temperature dependence of the flammability limit and the fundamental relationship between the flash point and the lower flammability limit have resulted in compilations filled with erroneous values. To establish a database of consistent flammability data, critical analysis of reported data, experimental investigation of the temperature dependence of the lower flammability limit, and theoretical and empirical exploration of the relationship between flash points and temperature limits are undertaken. Lower flammability limit measurements in a 12-L ASHRAE style apparatus were performed at temperatures between 300 K and 500 K. Analysis of these measurements showed that the adiabatic flame temperature at the lower flammability limit is not constant as previously thought, rather decreases with increasing temperature. Consequently the well-known modified Burgess-Wheeler law underestimates the effect of initial temperature on the lower flammability limit. Flash point and lower temperature limit measurements indicate that the flash point is greater than the lower temperature limit, the difference increasing with increasing lower temperature limit. Flash point values determined in a Pensky-Martens apparatus typically exceed values determined using a small-scale apparatus above 350 K. Data stored in the DIPPR® 801 database and more than 3600 points found in the literature were critically reviewed and the most probable value recommended, creating a database of consistent flammability data. This dataset was then used to develop a method of estimating the lower flammability limit, including dependence on initial temperature, and the upper flammability limit. Three methods of estimating the flash point, with one based entirely on structural contributions, were also developed. The proposed lower flammability limit and flash point methods appear to predict close to, if not within, experimental error.

This study examined the effects of household fabric softeners on the thermal comfort and flammability of 100% cotton and 100% polyester fabrics after repeated laundering. Two fabric properties related to thermal comfort, water vapor transmission and air permeability, were examined. A 3 X 2 X 3 experimental design (i.e., 18 experimental cells) was developed to conduct the research. Three independent variables were selected: fabric softener treatments (i.e., rinse cycle softener, dryer sheet softener, no softener), fabric types (i.e., 100% cotton, 100% polyester), and number of laundering cycles (i.e., 1, 15, 25 cycles). Three dependent variables were tested: water vapor transmission, air permeability, and flammability. The test fabrics were purchased from Testfabrics, Inc. To examine the influence of the independent variables and their interactions on each dependent variable, two-way or three-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were used to analyze the data. Results in this study showed that both the rinse cycle softener and the dryer sheet softener significantly decreased the water vapor transmission of test specimens to a similar degree. The rinse cycle softener decreased the air permeability of test specimens most and was followed by the dryer sheet softener. The rinse cycle softener increased the flammability of both cotton and polyester fabrics, but the dryer sheet softener had no significant effect on the flammability of both fabric types. Statistical analysis also indicated that the interactions were significant among the independent variables on water vapor transmission, air permeability, and flammability of the test specimens. For example, the rinse cycle softener significantly decreased the water vapor transmission and air permeability of cotton fabric but had no effect on polyester fabric. The dryer sheet softener also decreased the water vapor transmission of cotton fabric but had no effect on polyester fabric, and it had no effect on the air permeability of both cotton and polyester fabrics. In addition, the air permeability of cotton specimens treated with the rinse cycle softener continuously reduced after repeated laundering, but that of polyester fabrics treated with the rinse cycle softener only reduced after 15 laundering cycles and showed no continuous decrease when laundering cycles increased. When the influence of fabric softener treatments on flammability was examined, the results showed that the more the specimens were laundered with the rinse cycle softener, the greater the flammability of the test specimens. However, the dryer sheet softener did not have a significant effect on the flammability of the test fabrics even after repeated laundering. For the polyester fabric, all specimens treated with the dryer sheet softener or no softener passed the standard of children's sleepwear even after 25 laundering cycles, but those treated with the rinse cycle softener did not pass the standard. In conclusion, fabric softener treatment had a significant influence on the thermal comfort (i.e., water vapor transmission and air permeability) and flammability of 100% cotton and 100% polyester fabrics after repeated laundering cycles and the effects were significantly different among the three independent variables (i.e., fabric softener treatments, fabric types, and number of laundering cycles). The applications of these results were also discussed. / Master of Science

The research reported here explored the flammable range of gasification product “producer gas” in a combustion chamber to ensure complete combustion. Rising fuel prices has led to increased research in renewable energy sources. Biomass is a renewable resource whose use does not result in a net increase of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Wood was selected as the biomass for this research. Applications for wood as a fuel source includes crop drying, space heating, and power generation. Flammability limit and chemical equilibrium theory were used to model the flammable range of the gasification product in a combustion chamber. The model predicted an adiabatic flammable zone within an equivalence ratio of 0.56 to 1.67 for oak with 20 percent moisture content (w.b.), and a maximum adiabatic flame temperature of 2025°C for dry oak. Chemical equilibrium theory was used to predict gasification-combustion product concentration. Based on the analysis of the data, the following conclusions were made: (1) Flammability of gas-air mixture is largely determined by the amount of heat loss prior to combustion, (2) At equivalence ratios greater than 1.25, CO appears in the combustion products, (3) Adiabatic Flame Temperatures are largely influenced by moisture and excess air, (4) Combustion temperature is a critical parameter that influences composition distribution of the gasification-combustion product. (Product compositions are important to the designer, for both energy and environmental impact), and (5) Maximum benefit for a gasifier-combustor system could be obtained if heat loss, excess air, moisture content, mixing effectiveness, and residence time are optimized. / Master of Science

Engineered timber products are becoming increasingly popular in the construction industry due to their attractive aesthetic and sustainability credentials. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is one such engineered timber product, formed of multiple layers of timber planks glued together with adjacent layers perpendicular to each other. Unlike traditional building materials such as steel and concrete, the timber structural elements can ignite and burn when exposed to fire, and thus this risk must be explicitly addressed during design. Current design guidance focusses on the structural response of engineered timber, with the flammability risk typically addressed by encapsulation of any structural timber elements with the intention of preventing their involvement in a fire. Exposed structural timber elements may act as an additional fuel load, and this risk must be adequately quantified to satisfy the intent of the building regulations in that the structure does not continue burning. This can be achieved through timber’s natural capacity to auto-extinguish when the external heat source is removed or sufficiently reduced. To address these issues, a fundamental understanding of auto-extinction and the conditions necessary to achieve it in real fire scenarios is needed. Bench-scale flammability studies were undertaken in the Fire Propagation Apparatus to explore the conditions under which auto-extinction will occur. Critical conditions were determined experimentally as a mass loss rate of 3.48 ± 0.31 g/m2s, or an incident heat flux of ~30 kW/m2. Mass loss rate was identified as the better criterion, as critical heat flux was shown by comparison with literature data to be heavily dependent on apparatus. Subsequently, full-scale compartment fire experiments with exposed timber surfaces were performed to determine if auto-extinction could be achieved in real fire scenarios. It was demonstrated that auto-extinction could be achieved in a compartment fire scenario, but only if significant delamination of the engineered timber product could be prevented. A full-scale compartment fire experiment with an exposed back wall and ceiling achieved auto-extinction after around 21 minutes, at which point no significant delamination of the first lamella had been observed. Experiments with an exposed back and side wall, and experiments with an exposed back wall, side wall, and ceiling underwent sustained burning due to repeated delamination, and an increased quantity of exposed timber respectively. Firepoint theory was used to predict the mass loss rate as a function of external heat flux and heat losses, and was successfully applied to the bench-scale experiments. This approach was then extended to the full-scale compartment fire experiment which achieved auto-extinction. A simplified approach based on experimentally obtained internal temperature fields was able to predict auto-extinction if delamination had not occurred – predicting an extinction time of 20-21 minutes. This demonstrates that the critical mass loss rate of 3.48 ± 0.31 g/m2s determined from bench-scale experiments was valid for application to full-scale compartment fire experiments. This was further explored through a series of reduced-scale compartment fire experiments, demonstrating that auto-extinction can only reliably be achieved if burnout of the compartment fuel load is achieved before significant delamination of the outer lamella takes place. The quantification of the auto-extinction phenomena and their applicability to full-scale compartment fires explored herein thus allows greater understanding of the effects of exposed timber surfaces on compartment fire dynamics.

Following the promulgation of new permissible respirable dust standards by MSHA in 2014, new alternative rock dusts were created that combined the advantages of current industry applications while potentially reducing miner exposure to respirable dust. Research was performed to compare the explosion suppressing and ejection characteristics of three new types of rock dust to existing rock dust types. Explosion suppression tests were conducted in a 38-L chamber where pressures were recorded. Angle of ejection tests were conducted using a high explosive shock tube and high speed photography to determine angle of ejection and lift velocity. A comprehensive comparison of the results of these tests shows that these newly developed dusts have improved results for flame suppression and ejection when compared to typical wet dust applications.