Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems (GDEs) concentrate high levels of biodiversity and several species not found anywhere else. They prevail in the landscape through the ecological contribution of groundwater. They, GDEs, are vulnerable to drastic changes in groundwater depth. If, for example, bulk groundwater pumping drastically increases the groundwater depth and GDEs can no longer access it, they would die out. In the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), South Africa, there is limited information about the spatial distribution of groundwater dependent ecosystems. With the CFR having multiple locations with current and subsequent bulk groundwater pumping, identifying the spatial distribution of GDEs is a prerequisite for establishing their groundwater requirements. This dissertation presents a proposed novel method to identify rapid recovering wetlands predicted to be GDEs and uses Random Forest (RF) to predict their spatial distribution. The proposed novel approach leveraged the periodic fire disturbances in the CFR and applied the remote sensing index; Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) extracted from high spatial resolution (1 m) aerial orthoimages. The proposed novel approach involves three levels of analysis. The first two levels used a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to analyse the sensitivity of mean NDVI to discriminate wetland and non-wetland classes in burned and unburned study sites, and a post-hoc test: Tukey's Honest Significant Differences (HSD) pair-wise comparison to detect differences between the wetland and non-wetland mean NDVI and infer an NDVI threshold of wetland classes. In unburned sites, ANOVAshowed no statistical significance between wetland and non-wetland classes, F (2,15) = 3.53, p = 0.055. In burned sites, however, ANOVA showed there was a significant difference between wetland and non-wetland classes, F (2,15) = 9.66, p = 0.002. ANOVA and Tukey showed there were significant differences betweenwetland and non-wetland classes, with wetlands having between 0.22 and 0.37 greater NDVI than non-wetlands. The last level of analysis employed a kernel density estimator function to assess the recovery rate post-burn and use it to detect faster recovery as potential of wetlands to be GDEs; results showed that potential wetland GDEs experience rapid NDVI recovery > 236 days post-fire. In the fire prone CFR, leveraging fire data to detect GDEs provides a potentially simple and efficient way of building a local database for GDEs. The proposed novel approach showed leveraging fire data is a simple alternative to laborious field data to identify and map GDEs in the CFR. But because of the finite spectral bands in aerial orthoimages, Sentinel-2A multi-epochs dataset was utilised to carry out random forest for predicting the spatial distribution of potential wetland GDEs in the Kogelberg Nature Reserve. Sentinel-2A bands: Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR), NearInfrared (NIR), Red-edge, Red, Green, NDVI and Normalised Difference Wetness Index (NDWI) predictors and the potential wetland GDEs/non-wetland classes as the response. I tuned RF using five-fold repeated spatial cross-validation instead of the typical cross-validation tuning to account for the spatial structure of the data. The overall predictive accuracy of RF was between 59%-71%. This predictive accuracy may have been reduced by the application of spatial cross-validation that accounted for the spatial autocorrelation in the multi-date data. The dissertation showed that Sentinel-2A multi-date data applies in predicting the distribution of potential wetland GDEs but might not be effective for smaller (< 100 m2) wetlands. These small wetlands showed rapid post-fire recovery (less than a year post-fire) and were effectively detected with high resolution aerial orthoimages (1 m) spatial resolution.

Illinois has no official parameters for old-growth oak-hickory (Quercus-Carya) forests despite oak-hickory being the historically dominant ecosystem in the forested parts of Illinois (Fralish, 1997; Thompson & Dessecker, 1997). The purpose of this study was to better understand the characteristics of old-growth oak-hickory stands, as well as make management recommendations for preserving the integrity of old-growth forests and shifting second-growth stands to old-growth status. Stand structure analysis was conducted in June and July of 2022 on an old-growth oak-hickory stand (Otey-Grisley Nature Preserve) and nearby second-growth oak-hickory stand (Grisley Woods Land and Water Reserve) near Pittsburg, Illinois using dendrochronology, various stand composition analyses, and floristic assessments to compare the two forests across multiple nodes of inquiry from their canopies to their ground layers. White oak (Quercus alba L.) was of higher importance in the more open old-growth canopy than the closed second-growth canopy which had more shagbark hickory (Carya ovata L.). The old-growth stand had higher floristic quality (mean Coefficient of Conservatism and adjusted Floristic Quality Index) and lower frequency of invasive species than the second-growth stand. The dominant white oak appear to have suppressed the hickories (Carya) for over a century on both sites. However, in the sapling and seedling layer, it appears the oaks and hickories are failing to recruit into the canopy on either site. The average age of the old-growth canopy is 67 years greater than that of the second-growth canopy, the majority of which seeded in after a heavy cut in the early 1940s. The second-growth site rapidly gained early successional species after the logging. The second-growth site could come to resemble the open oak dominated character of the old-growth site. However, this will require management with fire, thinning, and invasive species treatments. The old-growth, where sassafras (Sassafras albidum L.) is crowding the understory, will also require invasive species management, prescribed fire, and thinning if it is to remain the open oak-hickory woodland it is today.

No description available.

Freshwater turtles are among the most threatened groups of taxa globally, and the bog turtle, Glyptemys muhlenbergii is among the most imperiled in North America. In Virginia, USA, bog turtles are restricted to occupying Appalachian Mountain fens. Fens are naturally small and fragmented wetlands characterized by elevated water tables and an open canopy. Although there is a strong need to document and monitor populations of bog turtles, efforts to do so are often limited by the low detection of the species. The first objective of this thesis was to assess proposed methodologies for locating populations of turtles on the landscape. My first chapter assessed a previously-developed habitat distribution model for bog turtles using an occupancy modeling approach. I conducted 216 surveys of 49 discretely predicted patches of habitat, recording conditions such as weather, size of wetland and time of year, hypothesized to affect detection during each survey. In addition, I assessed factors including stream entrenchment, grazing presence and surrounding impervious surfaces for each surveyed patch to identify data sources that could improve future models or better assess sites. I found that sites with larger total wetland area had higher detection per survey, possibly due to larger sites having higher densities of turtles (among other explanations), and that sites with higher amounts of impervious surfaces within their drainage were less likely to be occupied. In addition to the bog turtle, several plant species also occur in mountain fens. These species usually have a locally rare distribution or are disjuncts from a more northern latitude. Because of these traits, a high diversity of specialist plants may be indicative of a fen with a robust hydrology that has historically been less disturbed. Past site quality analyses have proposed using indicator diversity to assess sites, but no study has found if these species to tend to co-occur. My second chapter examines this hypothesis. I first chose a list of plant species that would most likely have habitat requirements similar to those of turtles. Then, at 12 sites, 6 with turtles and 6 without, I conducted a complete floral inventory. I first tested community-wide differences between the floral communities of these sites and found no difference, but when I narrowed my analysis to examining occurrence patterns of plant species determined a priori to be fen specialists and Glyptemys muhlenbergii, a pattern of co-occurrence was found. This lends support to the idea that indicator plants could be used as a tool to better evaluate sites that may have bog turtles. My last chapter investigated movement of bog turtles in a landscape impacted by anthropogenic development. Movement of turtles between adjacent sites is critical to maintaining genetic diversity and maintaining metapopulation integrity. Despite this importance, records of long distances movements among wetlands are scarce in the literature, likely due to the lack of long-term studies for areas with multiple adjacent sites. In Virginia, mark recapture monitoring has been done intermittently in a cluster of sites for over 32 years. To determine the prevalence of movement among sites for bog turtles, I examined the dataset for all instances of turtles found at sites different from their last capture. I calculated the straight-line distance for each recorded movement. I also examined the sex of the turtle to test whether sex influences movement the frequency and distance of movements. For a subset of movements, I calculated least-cost pathways to identify possible barriers to movement using a previously published resistance model. I found 21 instances where a turtle was caught at a different site than its last capture over 32 years of monitoring. Neither sex was more likely to move farther than the other. Although the study's observed rate of movement may appear low, it is likely an underestimate when detection and asymmetric sampling are taken into account. The least cost pathways analysis suggested that roads or driveways were likely crossed for a significant portion of movement events. Finally, to examine how movement may be affecting the current distribution of bog turtles, I described a method to test whether adjacency to known populations influences the probability of a new site being occupied by turtles. I prove the utility of the method by applying it to a map of bog turtle occurrences collected over this study and show that it can account for habitat differences and barriers to movement between sites as well. In spite of plausibility of the method, limitations in how occurrence data are currently collected prevent its immediate application. Together, this thesis will help managers not only find and assess wetlands on the landscape, it will also provide information about the network of connected patches on the landscape. Knowing where bog turtles are and what wetlands or sub-populations are potentially connected will allowed for a more directed and informed regional management strategy. / Master of Science / Freshwater turtles are facing population declines worldwide, and the bog turtle Glyptemys muhlenbergii is among the most imperiled in North America. Bog turtles occupy naturally small, specialized wetlands called Appalachian Mountain fens. The prevalence of fens on the landscape has declined over recent decades due to agricultural practices. Although there is a strong need to document and monitor bog turtle populations due to their threatened status, bog turtles are difficult to find due to their small size and ability to burrow completely into substrate. Thus, considerable effort must be expended to find populations and track their status. The first overall objective of this thesis was to assess methods for locating populations of bog turtles. My first chapter tests a habitat distribution model that uses publicly available landscape data such as topopgraphy and land cover to predict areas likely to contain turtles. To do this, I systematically surveyed 49 predicted sites multiple times each over 2 years. Simultaneously, I recorded variables such as the time of year, size of the wetland and the weather to determine whether any factor significantly explained the ability to find turtles on any given survey. In addition, I was able to record several variables relating to wetland quality and isolation that were not in the initial model. I found that larger wetlands were easier to search than smaller wetlands, possibly due to larger sites having more turtles, and that wetlands near more impermeable surfaces (such as roads and buildings) were less likely to have bog turtles. As another potential method to find bog turtles and assess sites, we tested the use of 'pristine indicator' plants as a metric for potential wetlands. Mountain fens have specific attributes, such as high groundwater influence and exposure to a large amount of sunlight. Several species, including the bog turtle, are specialized to these factors and are rarely found in the surrounding landscape. Because a distinct community exists for mountain fens in this region, sites with a higher diversity of fen specialist plants may be indicative of a higher quality site which can support more specialists, including the bog turtle. My second chapter tests this hypothesis. I first chose a list of species that would most likely have habitat requirements similar to those of bog turtles. Then, at 12 sites I documented every plant species I encountered within the wetland. I compared the plant community as a whole between bog turtle-occupied and unoccupied sites and found no significant difference between the two. When I narrowed my analysis to focus on plants I previously identified as sharing habitat requirements with the bog turtle, I found a strong pattern of their co-occurrence with bog turtles. This lends support to the idea that these 'pristine indicator' plants could be used as a tool to better evaluate sites that may have bog turtles. My last chapter investigates movement of bog turtles in a landscape impacted by human development. Movement of turtles between adjacent wetlands is critical to maintaining long term regional viability of the species, as it lets turtles colonize new sites and exchange genes. Despite the importance of these movements, records of turtles moving long distances between two wetlands is scarce in the literature, likely due to the lack of long-term studies for areas with multiple adjacent wetlands. One method of recording movements is by marking turtles with a unique ID and recording where it was encountered as wetlands are surveyed on the landscape. In Virginia, this procedure has been conducted at multiple sites over 32 years. To understand the prevalence of movement between sites for this species, I examined this dataset and examined all instances of a turtle being found at a site different from its last capture. I recorded the straight-line distance moved for each recorded movement as well as the sex of the turtle, to test if either sex was more or less likely to undertake these movements. Then, for a subset of movements, I calculated least-cost pathways, a metric that accounts for landscape features and plots the easiest route for turtles to move. This way, I could evaluate the prevalence of barriers to movement, such as roads or development, on the landscape. I found 21 documented movements among sites over 32 years of monitoring. Neither sex was more likely to move further than the other. Compared to studies looking at other freshwater turtles, the observed rate of movement appeared low, but this was likely an underestimate due to the difficulty of capturing specific individuals. I also found evidence of significant barriers to movement in 13 out of 17 evaluated least-costs paths, usually roads or driveways. Finally, to examine how movement affects bog turtle distribution, I describe a methodology of testing if adjacency to known populations influences the probability of a new site being occupied by turtles. I demonstrate the plausibility of the method by applying it to a map of occurrences collected over this study and show that it can account for habitat differences and barriers to movement between sites as well. However, limitations in my sampling scheme limit conclusions from my dataset. Together, these findings will help future managers find where turtles are and which sites may be connected. These results will help managers make more informed decisions for managing bog turtles at a statewide level.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of South Africa is well-recognised for exceptionally high plant species diversity and endemism. However, little attention has been bestowed on the pests and pathogens in this region, even though these may greatly influence plant distribution and evolution. In this study we identify various arthropods and fungi as pests and diseasecausing organisms of the ecologically and economically important CFR-endemic tree taxa of Virgilia. We isolated, identified and determined the pathogenicity of key fungal taxa from diseased Virgilia trees throughout the CFR. In addition we evaluated the role of possible pest arthropod taxa, including bark beetles, phoretic mites, larvae of a cerambycid beetle and larvae of the endemic Leto venus (ghost moth), in the death of Virgilia trees. Key fungal taxa were identified by comparisons of the internal transcribed spacer rDNA regions of the isolated taxa with those available on GenBank. Pathogenicity of the most commonly encountered fungal taxa was determined both in the field and under greenhouse conditions. Five different disease symptoms were observed on Virgilia trees throughout the CFR. At Table Mountain, Virgilia oroboides subsp. oroboides showed symptoms of: (1) several small cankers on stems, seemingly caused by a Fusarium acuminatum-like fungus, (2) a root rot disease caused by Armillaria mellea and (3) small bracket fungi on stems associated with Schizophyllum commune. Virgilia oroboides from the Harold Porter National Botanical Garden was diagnosed with a root disease consistently associated with an un-described Phomopsis species. Virgilia oroboides subsp. ferruginea and V. divaricata from Knysna and the Tsitsikamma area often showed symptoms of rapid wilting and death. The Virgilia stems were damaged by the tunnelling larvae of the ghost moth and those of an unidentified cerambycid beetle. Galleries and the surrounding wood tissues often housed the ophiostomatoid fungi Ceratocystis tsitsikammensis and Ophiostoma plurianulatum. These seem to originate from nitidulid beetles found feeding on gum exudate. Pathogenicity trials confirmed the virulence of the undescribed Phomopsis species, the F. acuminatum-like fungus, S. commune and C. tsitsikammensis to Virgilia. All four morpho-species of bark beetles found in this study, together with phoretic mites on two of the beetle morphospecies, were only collected from dead and dying Virgilia hosts and were classified as secondary pests. Both beetle taxa and mites commonly carried spores of various Geosmithia spp. These are not pathogenic to Virgilia trees, but may be an important food source for the bark beetles, as it dominated the fungal community in galleries. The phoretic mites were unable to feed on their Geosmithia associates, but have been observed to feed on dead bark beetle larvae within galleries. This suggests that the relationship of bark beetles, mites and their associated Geosmithia species in this system is complex and in need of further study. Our results show that natural populations of Virgilia play host to numerous destructive pathogens, some of which are non-native (e.g. A. mellea) and a cause for special concern. Additionally, the isolation of the undescribed Phomopsis species and A. mellea from botanical gardens, with A. mellea now spreading to natural areas, calls for stricter control over the movement of organic material from these areas. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Kaapse Floristiese Streek (KFS) van Suid-Afrika is bekend vir buitengewoon hoë plantspesie-diversiteit en endemisme. Min aandag is egter tot dusver geskenk aan die peste en patogene in hierdie streek, al mag hulle plantverspreiding en evolusie dramaties beinvloed. In hierdie studie identifiseer ons verskeie geleedpotige diere en fungi as peste en organismes wat siektes veroorsaak in die ekologies en ekonomies belangrike, KFS-endemiese boom genus Virgilia. Ons het die sleutel fungi vanaf Virgilia oor die hele KFS geisoleer, geidentifiseer en hulle patogeniteit bepaal. Addisioneel het ons ook die rol van moontlike pes geleedpotiges, insluitende baskewers, cerambycid kewerlarwes en die endemiese Leto venus (spookmot) in die dood van Virgilia bome geevalueer. Sleutel fungi taksa is geidentifiseer deur die interne getranskribeerde spasieerder rDNS streke van die geisoleerde taksa met die wat op GenBank beskikbaar was te vergelyk. Patogenisiteit van die mees algemeen geisoleerde fungi taxa is beide in die veld en onder glashuis-toestande bepaal. Vyf verskillende siekte simptome is by Virgilia bome regdeur die KFS waargeneem. By Tafelberg het Virgilia oroboides subsp. oroboides simptome getoon van: (1) verskeie klein kankers op stamme, blykbaar veroorsaak deur ‘n Fusarium acuminatum-agtige fungus, (2) ‘n wortelvrot siekte veroorsaak deur Armillaria mellea en (3) klein rakswamme op stamme geassosieer met Schizophyllum commune. Virgilia oroboides in die Harold Porter Nationale Botaniese Tuin is gediagnoseer met ‘n wortelvrot siekte wat altyd met ‘n onbeskryfde Phomopsis spesie geassosieer is. Virgilia oroboides subsp. ferruginea and V. divaricata van Knysna en die Tsitsikamma area het dikwels simptome getoon van vinnige verwelking en dood. Die Virgilia stamme is deur die tonnelende larwes van die spookmot en dié van ‘n ongeidentifiseerde cerambycid kewer beskadig. Galerye en die omringende houtweefsel het dikwels die ophiostomatoid fungi Ceratocystis tsitsikammensis en Ophiostoma plurianulatum gehuisves. Dit lyk asof hierdie fungi van nitidulid kewers afkomstig is wat op die gomuitskeidings gevoed het. Patogeniteitsproewe het die kwaadaardigheid van die onbeskryfde Phomopsis spesie, die F. acuminatum-agtige fungus, S. commune en C. tsitsikammensis teenoor Virgilia bevestig. Al vier morfo-spesies baskewer wat in hierdie studie gevind is, sowel as die foretiese myte op twee van die kewer morfo-spesies, is slegs van dooie of sterwende Virgilia gashere versamel, en is as sekondêre peste geklassifiseer. Beide kewerspesies en myt taksa het algemeen spore van verskeie Geosmithia spesies (Geosmithia pallida, G. flava, G. microcorthyli, G. sp. 1 en G. sp. 2) gedra. Die Geosmithia spesies is nie patogenies teenoor Virgilia bome nie, maar mag ‘n belangrike voedselbron vir die baskewers wees, aangesien dit die fungus-gemeenskap in die galarye gedomineer het. Die foretiese myte was nie instaat om op Geosmithia-assosiate te voed nie, maar is waargeneem om op dooie baskewer larwes te voed binne die galerye. Dit stel voor dat die verhouding van die baskewers, myte en hulle geassosieerde Geosmithia spesies in die sisteem kompleks is, en verdere studie benodig. Ons resultate dui aan dat natuurlike populasies van Virgilia gashere is vir verskeie destruktiewe patogene, sommige waarvan nieinheems (bv. A. mellea) wat ‘n bron van groot kommer is. Verder noodsaak die isolasie van die Phomopsis spesie en A. mellea, wat beide wortelvrot siektes in botaniese tuine veroorsaak, strenger kontrole oor die verskuiwing van organiese materiaal uit hierdie areas, veral gegewe dat A. mellea reeds na natuurlike areas versprei het. / The Centre of Excellence In Tree Health Biotechnology for a bursary and funding the research conducted in this study

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Soil is one of the most complex and understudied terrestrial habitats, and it comprises a wide range of organisms that affect the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems. Despite the importance of these below-ground fauna, our understanding of this diversity remains limited, especially in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), where higher plants and other more conspicuous invertebrates have been better represented in the literatures. The main aim of this thesis is to provide the first insights into the taxonomic, cryptic and spatial diversity of one of the more diverse Collembola genera, Seira (Collembola: Entomobryidae: Seirinae), in the Fynbos and Southern Afrotemperate forest habitats of the CFR. Collembola constitute an important component of terrestrial biodiversity and are essential for ecosystem functioning. The thesis is divided into two data chapters. The first data chapter examines the mitochondrial barcoding COI (Cytochrome-c oxidase subunit I) gene of 496 Seira specimens from 41 Fynbos and forest sites. Discrete Molecular Operational Taxonomic Units (MOTUs) are identified within Seira. Furthermore, divergence times are estimated and tentatively used to propose historical triggers for the diversification of Seira. Habitat specificity of Seira is assessed through phylogenetic reconstruction using Parsimony and Bayesian analyses based on the nucleotide and amino acid sequences. Genetic divergence indicates that Seira is composed of at least 91 MOTUs, suggesting that morphological taxonomy has vastly under-estimated the richness of this genus by at least four folds. Most of the MOTUs are highly habitat specific and geographically localised. The reconstruction of an evolutionary time frame of these lineages reveals several deep diversifications in the Miocene and a spate of more recent radiations in the Pleistocene and Holocene. Palaeo-environmental fluctuations and vegetation composition shifts are hypothesised as having increased the environmental complexity of the region and this may have influenced the diversification patterns of Seira. In the second data chapter, the spatial variation of Seira diversity is examined and compared between and within two major habitat types, Fynbos and forest, across nine study sites. Abiotic variables were recorded and compared for the investigation of environmental differences among habitat types. The habitat specificity of Seira is assessed, as well as the relative effects of habitat types and study sites on assemblage structure. Species richness of Seira is higher in Fynbos than in forest, and this could be due to the high heterogeneity of niches and resources created by the steep environmental and floristic gradients in the Fynbos habitats. Perhaps one of the most striking results is the high levels of beta diversity exhibited by Seira. The spatial turnover of the Seira assemblage is complete or nearly complete among and within habitat types across study sites within the CFR. Low dispersal abilities and consequently isolated evolutionary histories may account for the strong assemblage differences within the same habitat type of different study sites. However, the substantial differences in assemblage composition between adjacent habitat types in the same site are likely to be the result of the contrasting abiotic conditions exhibited by the Fynbos and forest habitats, as found by this study. Overall, the results of this thesis suggest that Seira species richness is much greater than previously thought. It follows similar diversity patterns to the well-described and hyper-diverse plant communities of the CFR. Here, for both CFR plants and Seira, the spectacular regional diversity displayed is not the result of high alpha diversity, but rather of substantial beta diversity. Because of the high beta diversity and the fact that only two CFR vegetation types were sampled from a limited number of study sites, I predict that the Seira species richness presented here is but the tip of the iceberg. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geen opsomming beskikbaar

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Understanding how divergent selection results in the evolution of reproductive isolation (i.e. speciation) is an important goal in evolutionary biology. Populations of herbivorous insects using different host plant species can experience divergent selection from multiple selective pressures which can rapidly lead to speciation. Restio leafhoppers are a group of herbivorous insect species occurring within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of South Africa. They are specialised on different plant species in the Restionaceae family. Throughout my thesis I investigated how bottom-up (i.e. plant chemistry/morphology of host plant species) and top-down (i.e. predation and competition) factors drive specialisation and divergence in restio leafhoppers. I also investigated interspecific competition as an important determinant of restio leafhopper community structure. In chapter 2 I quantified host specificity of restio leafhopper species within a local community for 24 months. I found that restio leafhopper species are highly host specific and potentially synchronised with the growth phases of their host plants. In chapter 3 I used a network metric, modularity, to determine whether host plant partitioning in a restio leafhopper community is non-random (i.e. driven by a deterministic process). This metric allows the identification of the components underlying host plant partitioning (modules). I then performed experiments to show that modules, and therefore host plant partitioning, can mostly be explained by preference and performance relationships (i.e. bottom-up factors). In chapter 4 I used null models to test whether niche partitioning in restio leafhopper communities is a general pattern across the landscape. I found non-random niche partitioning, which results from strong host specificity, in all investigated restio leafhopper communities. In addition, I performed binary host choice experiments in the presence and absence of interspecific competition, but found no evidence that interspecific competition narrows host preferences. These findings suggest that host specificity, the cause of niche partitioning, is likely shaped over evolutionary time. Sampling multiple interaction networks across the CFR, in chapter 5, I tested whether restio leafhopper populations are more host specific in species rich communities and regions in the CFR than in species poor communities and regions. I found no positive relationship between restio leafhopper species richness and host specificity at any scale. These findings suggest that specialisation is not driven by interspecific competition. In chapter 6 I investigated host shifts in Cephalelus uncinatus. C. uncinatus has a broader distribution than any single restio species that it can use; suggesting that host plant related divergence may result from geographic range expansion. I found that allopatric and parapatric populations, but not sympatric individuals, using different host plants have divergent host preferences. I also found evidence for morphological divergence in traits related to predator avoidance in population pairs that exhibit divergent host preferences. My findings emphasise the importance of both bottom-up and top-down factors, with the exception of interspecific competition, as determinants of specialisation and divergence in restio leafhoppers. I find no evidence that interspecific competition is an important force structuring restio leafhopper communities. Instead, strongly niche partitioned community structure appears to emerge from the speciation process. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wyse waarop uiteenlopende seleksie lei tot die evolusie van seksuele isolasie (n.l. spesiasie) is ‘n belangrike vraag in evolutionêre biologie. Plantetende insekpopulasieses wat verskillende gasheerplante gebruik kan onder uinteenlopende veelvoudige seleksie wees en vinnig spesiasie ondergaan. Restio-blaarspringers is ‘n groep plantetende insekspesies wat gespesialiseerd is op verskillende plantspesies in die restio familie. In my tesis ondersoek ek die onder-op (n.l. plantchemie en morfologie) en bo-af seleksiekragte (n.l. predasie en kompetisie) wat lei tot gasheerspesialisasie en -spesiasie in restio-blaarspringers. Ek ondersoek ook die belangrikheid van tussen-spesieskompetisie in gemeenskapsorganisasie. In hoofstuk 2 het ek gasheerspesialisasie gekwantifiseer in ‘n klein restio-blaarspringergemeenskap oor 24 maande. Ek het gevind dat restio-blaarspringers hoogs gasheerspesifiek is en moontlik met die groeifase van hul hoofgasheerplante gesinchroniseerd is. Ek het in hoofstuk 3 ‘n netwerkmetriek, modulariteit, gebruik om te bepaal of restio-blaarspringers se gasheerverdeling nie-stokasties is (n.l. deur deterministiese prosesse veroorsaak is). Hierdie metriek laat ‘n mens toe om die komponente van gasheerverdeling (modules) te identifiseer. Deur middel van eksperimente het ek bepaal dat modules, en dus gasheerverdeling, deur gasheervoorkeur en prestasie (onder-op prossesse) verduidelik kan word. In hoofstuk 4 het ek ondersoek of gasheerverdeling algemeen is. Ek het deur middel van nulmodelle gewys dat gasheerverdeling algemeen is en veroorsaak is deur sterk gasheerspesifiekheid. Ek het ook voorkeureksperimente uitgevoer in die teenwoordigheid en afwesigheid van tussen-spesies kompetisie. Hier het ek geen teken gevind dat huidige tussen-spesies kompetisie gasheervoorkeur beïnvloed nie. My bevindinge in hierdie hoofstuk stel dus voor dat spesialisasie, die oorsaak van gasheerverdeling, oor evolutionêre tyd gevorm word. In hoofstuk 5 het ek ondersoek of populasies van restio-blaarspringers meer gasheerspesifiek is in restio-blaarspringerspesies ryke gemeenskappe en streke as populasies in spesies-arm gemeenskappe en streke. Ek het geen positiewe korrelasie tussen spesiesrykheid en gasheerspesialisasie gevind nie. Dit dui daarop aan dat gasheerspesialisasie, en dus gasheerverdeling, nie deur tussen-spesies kompetisie veroorsaak word nie. In hoofstuk 6 het ek gasheerplantgekoppelde divergensie ondersoek in Cephalelus uncinatus. C. uncinatus se verspreiding is breër as enige restio-spesies wat dit kan gebruik. Dit stel voor dat verspreidingvergroting gasheerverskuiwing mag veroorsaak. Ek het gevind dat populasies wat verskillende plante in allopatrie en parapatrie gebruik uiteenlopende gasheerkeuses maak, maar insekte wat verskillende plante in sympatrie gebruik wys nie ontwrigtende gasheerkeuses nie. Die populasies wat uiteenlopende gasheerkeuses getoon het, het ook verskillende morfologiese teen-predasie eienskappe getoon. Dit dui daarop aan dat predasie belangrik mag wees vir spesiasie in restio-blaarspringers. Die bevindinge van my tesis dui daarop aan dat beide onder-op en bo-af seleksie belangrik is vir gasheer-spesialisasie in divergensie. Nietemin, tussen-spesies kompetisie is nie ‘n belangrike bron vir spesialisasie, divergensie of gemeenskapsorganisasie nie. Gemeenskapsorganisasie is klaarblyklik slegs ‘n gevolg van die spesiasie proses.

Cette thèse porte sur l'étude de la relation Homme-Mare temporaire dans la région de Benslimane. Une approche pluridisciplinaire intégrant l'écologie et la sociologie a été adoptée, afin d'apporter des réponses adaptées aux problématiques liées à ces habitats et de permettre leur développement durable. Le premier volet a pour but d'évaluer les facteurs clés déterminant la richesse de la végétation des mares de cette région. Les résultats obtenus révèlent l'influence prédominante des facteurs locaux, avec un effet significatif des facteurs régionaux et de la vulnérabilité des mares aux usages, sur l'expression de la richesse floristique. Les activités anthropiques affectent différemment la richesse en espèces Préférentielles. Le second volet se focalise sur les causes de régression des mares, en couplant l'évaluation des menaces à une enquête socio-économique. Les résultats montrent la prédominance d'une perception anthropocentrique des mares temporaires. Ce constat traduit le haut niveau de menace qui pèse sur les mares de cette région. L'évaluation de ces menaces, qui indique que 22 % des mares sont vulnérables et que 23 % sont menacées de destruction à court terme, soulignent le besoin urgent de nouvelles politiques environnementales et d'approches innovantes de gestion des mares temporaires. Enfin, le troisième volet s'intéresse à l'impact du pâturage sur la végétation des mares. Les résultats montrent que cette perturbation affecte la végétation des mares, à l'échelle régionale et locale. Ces résultats sont interprétés comme résultant de l'effet sélectif des herbivores et la tolérance différentielle des espèces aux perturbations. Au terme de cette étude, la gestion intégrée des mares apparaît comme le moyen le plus approprié pour le développement durable de cet "éco-socio-système" complexe, en conciliant développement économique et bon état écologique des ressources, et en liant les questions environnementales, économiques et sociales. / This thesis focuses on the study of the relationship Man-Temporary pool. A multidisciplinary approach integrating ecology and sociology has been adopted to provide appropriate responses to the problems related to these ecosystems and to allow their sustainable development. The first section aims at evaluating the key factors determining the vegetation richness within regional pools. The obtained results reveal the predominant influence of local factors, with a significant effect of regional factors and the vulnerability of pools to use, on the expression of the vegetation. Human activities affect differently the richness in preferential pool species. The second section focuses on the major causes of the regression of pools, by coupling threats assessment and a socio-economic survey. The results point out the anthropocentric perception of pools. This translates the high level of threat concerning the temporary pools of Benslimane region. The thr eat assessment, which shows that 22 % of pools are vulnerable, and 23 % are threatened of destruction of the short term, highlights the urgent need for new environmental policies and innovative approaches of temporary pools management. Finally, the third section concerns the impact of grazing on the vegetation of temporary pools. The results demonstrate that grazing affects the vegetation of pools, both at the regional and the local scale. These results are interpreted as a result of the selective influence of herbivores, and the differential tolerance of species to disturbance. At the end of the present study, the integrated management of pools appears as the most appropriate means for the sustainable development of this complex eco-socio-system, by combining the economic development and the ecological status of resources, and by linking environmental, economic and social issues.

O incremento do processo de substituição da floresta amazônica por áreas agrícolas e seu posterior abandono, têm resultado num número crescente de fragmentos de florestas secundárias. Com o objetivo de contribuir com o entendimento da dinâmica dessas áreas, analisou-se a composição florística, a fitossociologia, o ingresso, a mortalidade, o crescimento dos indivíduos arbóreos e as relações do solo com o crescimento em diâmetro, densidade e área basal total de duas florestas secundárias (Marituba e Bragança, NE, PA) com diferentes histórias de degradação e mesma idade de abandono. Foram instaladas 4 parcelas permanentes de 50x50m, subdivididas em 25 com de 10x10m, em cada área, onde amostrou-se todas as árvores com DAP >5cm. Em Marituba as medições foram em 1997, 2000 e 2002, e em Bragança, 1999, 2000, 2001 e 2002. O solo foi coletado nas profundidades de 0- 5cm, 5-15cm e 15-25cm, nas subparcelas pares das áreas. No primeiro levantamento de Marituba foram encontrados 1.257 indivíduos e 185 espécies. No último levantamento houve redução de 4,1% de indivíduos e aumento de 8,1% de espécies, com H´ = 4,42nats/indivíduo. Em Bragança, foram encontrados em 1999, 1.819 indivíduos e 136 espécies. No último levantamento, houve redução de 6,2% dos indivíduos e de 1,5% de espécies, com H´ = 4,08nats/indivíduo. Entre as duas áreas estudadas houve baixa similaridade florística (Jac = 12%). Marituba apresentou incremento diamétrico de 0,23cm/ano, ingresso de 2,1%/ano e mortalidade de 3,2%/ano. Bragança apresentou incremento em DAP de 0,25cm/ano, ingresso de 1,2%/ano e mortalidade de 3,6%/ano. As duas florestas apresentaram um balanço característico de comunidades em sucessão secundária com taxas de mortalidade maiores do que ingressos, indicando estádio de reconstrução. As áreas apresentaram fertilidade do solo distintas, sendo que Bragança foi maior. Bragança se diferenciou de Marituba, pelo PCA, pelos atributos CTC, P, MO, Argila e %Al. A análise de correspondência canônica (CCA), não mostrou correlação entre a fertilidade do solo e o crescimento em diâmetro, densidade e área basal total. A dinâmica da floresta de Bragança foi mais intensa, indicando um estádio sucessional menos avançado, resultado dos sucessivos ciclos de corte-queima-plantio-pousio. Para Marituba, os valores de riqueza, diversidade e área basal foram compatíveis com os de florestas primárias, em função das características mais amenas de degradação (extrativismo seletivo de madeira). Os resultados confirmaram a hipótese de que o histórico de perturbação foi definidor das características do processo de sucessão em duas florestas secundárias, com mesma idade e sobre o mesmo tipo de solo. Portanto, a idade por si só não é um requisito adequado para prever taxas de recuperação e estádios de sucessão de florestas secundárias. / The increase of the substitution from process amazonic forest by agricultural areas and their desertation afterwards have caused an increasing number of secondary forest fragments to happen. Aiming to contributing with the understanding of the diynamics of these areas, the floristic composition, the phitosociology, the ingrowth rate, the mortality rate, the growth of the individuals, and the soil relations whith the gowth in diameter, density and total basal area from secondary forests (Marituba and Bragança, NE, Pará) whith different hystories of abandonment, were analyzed. Four permanent plots measuring 50x50m, subdivided into 25 sub-plots with 10x10m in each area, were installed. All trees with DBH >5cm were sampled. The measures made in Marituba took place in 1997, 2000, 2001, and 2002; yet, in Bragança, 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002. The soil sampled were collected at lake depth of 0-5cm, 5- 15cm, 15-25cm on the even part of the areas. In the first survey made in Marituba, 1,257 individuals and 185 species were found. In the last survey, the was a reduction of 4.1% in the number of individuals and an increase 8.1% of the species, with H´ = 4.42nats/indivíduo. In Bragança, 1,819 individuals and 136 species were found in 1999. In the last survei, there was a reduction of 6,2% of the individuals and 1,5% of species, with H´ = 4.08nats/indivíduo. Between both studied areas, the was a low floristic similarity (Jac = 12%). Marituba had an increase of 0.23cm/year, ingrowth of 2.1%/year, and a mortality rate of 3.2%/year. Bragança had a increase in DBH of 0.25cm?year, ingrowth of 1.2%/year, and a mortality rate of 3.6%/year. Both forests presented a characteristic floristic balance of communities under secondary succession, whit mortality rates higher than. The ingrowth, which indicated the recovering phase. The areas showed distinct soil fertility: Bragança´s soil fertility was higher. Bragança was different from Marituba, for PCA analysis, mainly in relations to CTC, P, MO, Clay, and %Al. The canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) did not show correlation between the soil fertility and the growth in diameter, density, and total basal area. The dynamiocs of the forest in Bragança was more ntense, indicating a less advanced successional phase, wich was a result of successive cutting-burningólanting-resting cycles. For Marituba, the richness values, diversity, and basal area were compatible whit those of primary forests´, as a function of lighter degradation characteristics (selective logging). The results confirmed the hypotesis that the succession process characteristics in both secondary forests with the same age and on the same type of soil. However, oney the age itself is not an adequate feature for forecasting the recovering rates and the successional phases of secondary forests.

Esta tese foi concebida para se integrar ao eixo nº 5 (Paleoclimas e Paleoambientes no final do Peistoceno e Holoceno na região de Lagoa Santa) da terceira versão do projeto temático Origens e Microevolução do Homem na América: uma abordagem paleoantropológica (FAPESP proc. 04/01321-6), onde a principal questão abordada é a existência de um grande período (de 8.000 a 2.000 anos A.P) de drástica redução de sepultamentos e vestígios arqueológicos na região de Lagoa Santa, MG. Para esse período, as pesquisas palinológicas no Brasil central e sudeste, embora existam em número razoável, possuem interpretações paleoambientais contraditórias. Bem caracterizado no Hemisfério Norte, ao redor de 6000 anos A.P., o evento climático conhecido como Ótimo Climático, período predominantemente mais quente e úmido, se estabeleceu devido a uma maior insolação terrestre, propiciando a expansão de coberturas vegetais de maior porte e umidade de diversos pontos do globo e é sustentado por diversos autores para muitas localidades brasileiras. Por outro lado, embora não existam dúvidas de que o nível do mar esteve acima do atual na costa brasileira, é consenso que alterações climáticas foram mais amenas e aparentemente mais complexas. Amparados por este raciocínio, outros estudos sugerem eventos de seca no período aproximado de 6000 a 4500 anos A.P. Neste contexto, objetivando verificar a provável diferença climática ocorrida durante o Holoceno médio é confirmada pelo estudo de lenhos fósseis de região e sustenta a hipótese de a redução de sepultamentos da região reflete um deslocamento humano por causas climáticas, utilizaram-se duas abordagens diferentes no estudo anatômico de lenhos fósseis datados do Holoceno médio e tardio: uma abordagem florística, feita através da identificação taxonômica das amostras fósseis e comparação com localidades atuais; e através de uma abordagem anatômico-ecológica do lenho de Myroxylon peruiferum L.f., que utilizou correlações existentes entre o clima e as características anatômicas pra predizer o clima pretérito da região com base nas características anatômicas dos fósseis. Para a primeira abordagem, foram também realizados um levantamento florístico-lenhoso da APA Carste de Lagoa Santa e estudos fitossociológicos nas diferentes fitofisionomias da região, que proveram informações adicionais para as interpretações paleoambientais. Como resultado, os estudos florísticos e fitossociológicos, além de grande valia para a interpretação das assembléias fósseis, mostraram uma riqueza expressiva de espécies na região. A identificação das assembléias fósseis do Holoceno médio e tardio mostrou muita similaridade entre as duas assembléias, sugerindo a ausência de mudanças climáticas significativas a ponto de alterar a florística da região. Ainda, essas assembléias fósseis são relacionadas fortemente com o mosaico de vegetações existentes na região, que aponta para a manutenção desta vegetação desde o Holoceno médio. Por outro lado, a abordagem anatômico-ecológica revelou uma maior sazonalidade climática durante o Holoceno médio. Embora pareçam conflitantes, estes resultados são interpretados como complementares, e indicam um período sensivelmente mais sazonal no Holoceno médio, porém insuficientes para propiciar alterações florísticas no mosaico vegetacional que existia na época e caracteriza hoje a região. Esses resultados, portanto, não apóiam a hipótese de alterações intensas no clima, na flora e nem na presença das vegetações que ali existiam desde 5.000 anos A.P. / This thesis is designed to integrate the shaft Nº. 5 (Paleoclimates and paleoenvironments in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene at Lagoa Santa region) of the third version of the Project Origins and Microevolution of man in América: an approach paleoanthropological (FAPESP proc. 04/01321-6), where the main issue addressed is the existence of a large period (8000-2000 years BP) of drastic reduction of burials and archaeological sites in Lagoa Santa, MG. For that period, palynological research in central and southeastern Brazil, althoug in reasonable numbers, have contradictory paleoenvironmental interpretations. Well characterized in the Northern Hemisphere, around 6000 yeras BP, the climatic event known as Climatic Optimum, predominantly warmer and wetter, was established due to greater solar insolation, favoring the expansion of humid vegetation cover various parts of the globe and is supported by several authors for many places in Brazil. Moreover, although there is no doubt that the sea level was above the current along the Brazilian coast, there is consensus that climate change was milder and seemingly more complex. In the same way, other studies suggest drought events in the approximate period 6000 to 4500 years B.P. In this context, to verify if the climatic differences likely ocurred during the middle Holocene is confirmed by the study of fóssil Wood from the region and supports the hypothesis that the reduction of burials in the region reflects a human migration causes climate, we used two different approaches in a anatomical study of fóssil Wood dated to the middle and late Holocene: 1.) a floristic approach, made through the taxonomic identification of fóssil specimens and comparison with current local florist, and 2.) through na approach of ecological Wood anatomy of Myroxylon peruiferum L.f., which correlation between climate and anatomical characteristics were used to predict the past climate of the region based on the same anatomical characteristics in fossils samples. For the first approach, were also carried out a floristica-woody survey of APA-Lagoa Santa Karst and phytosociological studies in different Forest types in the region, which provided additional information for paleoenvironmental interpretations. As a result, floristic and phytosociological studies, besides showing great importance for the interpretation of fóssil assemblages, revealed and expressives richness of species. The identification of fóssil assemblages from middle and late Holocene showed high similarity between both, suggesting the absence of enough climate change lo alter the flora in the region. Still, these fóssil assemblages are strongly related with the mosaico of vegetation in the region, pointin to the maintenance of vegetation since the middle Holocene. Furthermore, the ecological-anatomy approach revealed a greater climatic seasonality during the middle Holocene. Although these two approaches seem conflicting, these results are interpreted as complementary, and show a markedly more seasonal period in middle Holocene, but insufficient to provide floristic changes in the vegetation mosaic that existed nowadays and characterizes the region. These results therefore do not support the hypothesis of intense changes in climate, flora and even in the presence of vegetation that existed there since 5000 years BP.